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Book ^MJAS 

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COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 



MACE-PETRIE 

AMERICAN SCHOOL 
HISTORY 



By WILLIAM H. MACE 

Formerly Professor of History in Syracuse University. Author of 

"A School History of the United States," "A Primary 

History," "A Beginner's History," "Method in History" 

and 

GEORGE PETRIE 

Professor of History and Dean of the Academic 
Faculty of Alabama Polytechnic Institute 



Illustrated by 

HOMER W. COLBY and CARL S. JUNGE 




RAND McNALLY & COMPANY 

CHICAGO NEW YORK 



./ 



Copyright, 1910, by 
Rand McNally & Companv 







^!H«*^ 



:;te«- 




^EB 13 1919 
©CLAf, 12357 



THE PREFACE 

THE purpose of this book is to tell the story of our country. 
The authors have tried to write simply, without long 
sentences or unusual words, so that the book might be 
easy to understand. They have tried to deal fairly with all 
sections and all questions, so that it might be broadly and 
genuinely American. 

The story itself has always seemed to them full of interest 
and inspiration. The exploration and settlement of a new 
land, the winning of independence, the solving of great prob- 
lems of government, the growth of industry, the effect of inven- 
tions, the welding together of many nationalities into a great 
and free nation, the wonderful growth of that nation from 
obscurity to world leadership, — all these make a great story. 
It is not a long one, but it is crowded with action. At every 
turn there are bold deeds and stirring events. Yet it is more 
than a series of disconnected incidents. A golden thread 
connects them; a national purpose rans through our history. 
From colonial days down to the present, freedom has been our 
great American ideal. Our task has been to establish a more 
and more perfect liberty in a free and orderly country. To 
this we have bent our best energies, first in our own land and 
then in the world at large. 

In telling this story the authors have followed closely many 
valuable suggestions made by the Committee of Eight of the 
American Historical Association. They have emphasized the 
constant connection between American and European history, 
and have devoted more attention than usual to our neighbors • 
in North and South America. Sometimes it was difficult to 
do this without breaking the thread of the narrative. In 
these cases they have freelv used notes in the back of the book. 



iv The Preface 

This plan has also the advantage that the same explanation 
can be referred to whenever it may be needed in the text. 

The book is intended for school use. Therefore unimpor- 
tant details have been omitted, and so have elaborate discus- 
sions of disputed points. The paragraphs are brief and the 
headings carefully selected. Frequent cross references help 
the student connect what he is reading with what he has 
already read. In the back of the book will be found questions 
for review and suggestions for further reading. Care has been 
taken to select books that will be interesting and helpful. 

The authors believe that for young people especially the most 
effective approach to history is through lively incidents and 
deeds that stir the imagination. They have not hesitated to 
use these when they seemed to help the story. For the same 
reason they have made their description of famous men and 
great occasions as vivid as possible. To increase still further 
the sense of reality the book has been given the best illustra- 
tions obtainable and the clearest and simplest maps. 

Mace's School History of the United States has had a \\'ide 
use in many parts of the country, and has been tested in the 
school room. The authors have not hesitated to draw on this 
work freely whenever a sentence in it, or a paragraph, or a 
vivid word picture seemed to express an idea just as they wished 
it put. They have also used the illustrations from that book 
wherever they were suitable, adding others as they were needed. 

In all other respects this book is a new one. The authors 
have spent four years in writing it, and have spared no pains 
to make the whole work as up-to-date as possible. They have 
tried to include the best results of recent research, as well as 
the good old fundamentals. They hope that the result of 
their labor may help toward a deeper love of our country and a 
keener interest in its history.' 

The Authors 

January, 1919 



THE TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

The Preface iii 

A List of the Maps x 

Period of Discovery and Exploration 

Europe Discovers America While Seeking India .... i 

Hunting for a Water Route to India i 

Columbus Seeks a New Route and Finds a New World ... 5 

Where Europe Planted Institutions ii 

Conflicting European Claims to Territory li 

The North American Indian 20 

Period of Colonization 

Virginia: The First Southern Colony 25 

Trying Experiments 25 

Winning a Foothold 29 

Virginia a Royal Colony 32 

( The Other Southern Colonies 37 

Maryland: A New Kind of Colony 37 

Carolina: The Home of Many Kinds of People 40 

Georgia: A Real Spanish Barrier 46 

/ Massachusetts: The First Puritan Colony 51 

The Pilgrim Fathers 51 

Puritan Migration to Massachusetts Bay -53 

Dangers Threaten from the Outside 55 

The Other New England Colonies 59 

Maine and New Hampshire 59 

Connecticut and New Haven 59 

Rhode Island: Democratic in Politics and Religion .... 62 

New York 64 

The Dutch Settle New Netherland 64 

The Other Middle Colonies . . . 68 

Delaware 68 

Y 



VI American School History 

PAGE 

New Jersey 68 

Pennsylvania: A Home for the Persecuted 70 

Life in the Colonies 74 

Colonial Government 74 

What the People Did for a Living 75 

Social Life in the Colonies 80 

Schools, Books, and Newspapers 87 

Religious Beliefs and Customs 90 

The Conflict over North America , •• • 93 

Spain's American Empire 93 

The Rise of French Power 95 

The Beginning of the Struggle 98 

The Last Conflict 102 

Period of the American Revolution 

Struggle for the Rights of englishmen 113 

The First Steps 113 

The Conflict Begins 128 

The Struggle for Independence 135 

The Movement in Favor of Separation 135 

The British Try for the Middle States 140 

Winning Our First Western Boundary 154 

Irregular Fighting on Land and Sea 157 

War in the South 161 

Winning Back the South 164 

The Struggle for a Stronger Union 176 

The Country Begins with State Sovereignty 176 

The Constitutional Convention 183 

The People Accept the Constitution 189 

Period of the Growth of the Nation 

The Federalist Party in Power 192 

The Condition of the Country in 1790 192 

The Beginnings of Political Parties 199 

Peopling the Great West . . ' 203 

The New Nation Faces New Problems 208 

The Fall of the Federalists . . . . ■ 212 



The Table of Contents vii 

PAGE 

The Republicans in Power 214 

Jeflferson's New Policy 214 

A Hard Struggle for Freedom of Trade 221 

The War for Commercial Independence 226 

A New Era 237 

Results of the War 237 

The Country Grows 239 

The Rise of Internal Improvements 242 

The Monroe Doctrine 249 

Old Parties Take New Names 251 

Jacksonian Democracy 253 

Sectional Differences 262 

North, South and West Differ 262 

The Tariff and Nullification 264 

Slavery and Abolition 268 

Western Problems 270 

Texas and Oregon 270 

The War With Mexico 276 

Problems After the War 279 

Growth of the Country 289 

Growth in Area and Population 289 

Growth in Morals and Religion 292 

Education and Literature 295 

The Growth of Industry 300 

Political Struggle Between the North* and the South . 308 

The Kansas Question 308 

Changes in Political Parties 311 

Secession and Confederation 318 

The War Between the States 325 

War Begins 325 

The Blockade and England 332 

The War in the Mississippi Valley 337 

The War in the East 344 

The West Once More 352 

The Effect of the War on Politics 357 

The Georgia Campaign 358 

West of the Mississippi : . . . . 362 

The End of the War 364 

Facts About the War 371 



viii American School History 

Period of Consolidation and Expansion 



PAGE 



Reconstruction in the South 377 

The Plans of Lincoln and Johnson 377 

Reconstruction by Congress 380 

New Questions Before the People 385 

Foreign Relations 385 

Old Parties Divide and New Ones Arise 386 

The Growth of Schools 399 

How Americans View Education 399 

vSouthem Schools 400 

Schools of the Nation 401 

Other Means of Education .... 403 

Growth of Literature 406 

Industrial Progress 409 

Northern Industry Immediately after the War 409 

Growth of Industry in the Nation 411 

The Struggle between Capital and Labor 420 

The Beginning of Expansion 423 

Causes of the War with Spain 423 

The Leading Events of the War 426 

America in the Far East * 430 

New Political Ideas 432 

Recent Events . . .♦ 454 

The Great European Struggle 454 

THE APPENDIX 

I. Notes xiii 

II. Study Questions and Collateral Reading .... xxxvi 

III. The "Mayflower" Compact lii 

IV. The Declaration of Independence lii 

V. Provisions of the Constitution Ivi 

VI. The Constitution of the United States .... Iviii 

VII. A Table of the States 'and Territories .... Ixxii 
Date of Admission, Area, Population, etc. 

VIII. Growth of the United States Ixxiii 

The Increase in Town and City Po])ulation. 

IX. Gross Area of the United States Ixxiii 



The Appendix ix 

PAGE 

X. Facts about our Latest Dependencies Ixxiii 

XI. A Table of the Presidents Ixxiv 

XII. Some Statistics of the United States and Territories Ixx 
Representation in Congress, School Statistics, etc. 

A Pronouncing Index Ixxvi 

The Index Ixxix 




A LIST OF THE MAPS 

PAGE 

Old Trade Routes to India 2 

Portuguese Voyages to India 4 

The World as Known in the Time (jf Columbus 5 

The Four Voyages of Columbus 8 

Magellan and Drake's Voyages Around the World 11 

Routes of the Conquerors, Cortes and Pizarro 12 

The Routes of Coronado and DeSoto 14 

Early Settlements in " Virginia " 20 

The Distribution of Indian Families and Tribes (in colors) Facing 22 

London and Plymouth Companies 26 

Territory Claimed by Virginia under the Charter of 1609 .... 29 

The Maryland Colony 37 

The Carolina and Georgia Colonies 40 

The Settlements Along the New England Coast 55 

The Region Ruled by Sir Edmund Andros 58 

The Connecticut and New Haven Colonies 61 

Rhode Island and the Providence Plantations 63 

New Netherland and the "Five Nations" 65 

North America in 1650 (in colors) Facing 68 

East and West Jersey and the Surrounding Colonies 69 

The Early Settlements in Pennsylvania . . . ' 72 

French Explorations and Posts 96 

North America in 1750 (in colors) Facing 102 

Fort Duquesne and Its Approaches 105 

European Possessions, 1763 Facing 112 

The Colonies During the Revolution (in colors) Facing 128 

A Map of Boston and Vicinity 130 

The Military Movements in the Middle Colonies, 1 776-1 778 . . 140 

The Campaigns Around Philadelphia 145 

Burgoyne's Campaign 149 

The George Rogers Clark Expedition 157 

Campaigns in the vSouth During the Revolution 165 

The War in Virginia 169 

Siege of Yorktown 173 

The United States at the Close of the Revolutionary War (in 

colors) Facing 176 

The Northwest Territory 181 

X 



A List of the Maps xi 



PAGE 



Growth of Settled Area in 1790 and 1800 192 

Early Trails and Post Roads 196 

The United States After the Louisiana Purchase, 1803 (in 

colors) Facing 216 

Expeditions of Lewis and Clark, and of Pike 218 

The Scene of the War of 181 2 227 

Campaigns in the North and East, War of 1812 232 

The Floridas from 1763 to 1783 240 

Florida from 1810 to 1819 240 

The United States in 1821 (in colors) Facing 242 

The Electoral Vote for President in 1824 251 

The Vote of the House of Representati-^^es in the Election of 1825 . 254 

The Railroads of the United States in i860 305 

Early Trails Leading to the Pacific Coast 270 

The Oregon Boundary Dispute (in colors) . Facing 274 

The Texas Boundary Dispute 275 

Territory Gained by the Treaty of Peace, 1848 279 

Coal Field of the United States 302 

Changes in vSlave and Free Territory, i 820-1 850 (in colors) Facing 288 
Slave and Free States After the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 

1854 (in colors) Facing 310 

Charleston Harbor and Its Approaches 322 

Union and Confederate States, 1861 (in colors) . . Facing 328 

Blockade of the Southern Ports 334 

Campaigns for the Western Border States 339 

The Peninsular Campaigns . . ■ 345 

The Battlefield of Gettysburg • 352 

The Campaign Around Vicksburg 353 

Chattanooga and Vicinity 354 

The Georgia Campaign and Red River Expedition 360 

Territorial Growth of the United States Since 1776 (in colors) 

Facing 378 

The Alaskan Purchase of 1867 386 

The Hawaiian Islands 397 

Industrial Map of the United States (in colors) . . . Facing 412 

Porto Rico and Cuba 424 

The Philippine Islands 430 

The United States and Its Possessions (in colors) . . Facing 432 

The' Republic of Panama 435 

Growth of Settled Area from 1870 to 19 10 . . 446 

Status of Woman vSuffragc, 19 18 461 




COLUMISUS SlGHllMLi L,AND 
The beginning of the history of our country 



AMERICAN SCHOOL 
HISTORY 



Period of Discovery and Exploration 

EUROPE DISCOVERS AMERICA WHILE 
SEEKING INDIA 

HUNTING FOR A WATER ROUTE TO INDIA 

I. Northmen visit America. We do not know when 
Europeans first came to the shores of America. The 
Northmen from Norway settled Iceland and then Green- 
land. About the year 
I GOO a bold sailor, Leif 
Ericson, reached the 
coast of Labrador or of 
New England. These 
men of the North, fair 
haired and brave, were 
every one of them war- 
riors, and sailed on their 
voyages of discovery in 
great open boats driven 
by oar and sail. They 
were eager for conquest, 
and settled in a region 
they called Vinland. 
The Indians probably 
drove them away. The 




2 Europe Discovers America While Seeking India 

story of the Northmen did not reach Europe until long 
after Columbus had found America. 
2. The Turks smash the old trade routes to India. 

For many, many years the Christian church encouraged 
its people to go on pilgrimages to the Holy Land. But 
the Turks, a band of cruel warriors, followers of the 
Mohammedan religion, conquered the Holy Land and 
drove out the pilgrims. For nearly two hundred years 
(1095-1291) the nations of western Europe sent thousands 
upon thousands of soldiers to win back the Holy Land, 
but in the end they failed. The Turks now pressed into 
Europe. They destroyed the different trade routes over 
which the merchants of Venice and Genoa had brought 
from the Far East the richest trade in the world. 



O P E 







^ Y 1 ,^ 'J >^ "> 'o* 

INDIA iV '■■.OCEAN 



Middle Route 



Northern liontc Controlled by Genoa 

Southern Route Controlled by Venice — ■ — r— 1— 1 — , 

OLD TRADE ROUTES TO INDIA FOLLOWED BY EUROPEAN MERCHANTS 

The ships and caravans traveling over these routes sought the silks and spices from India 
and the Spice Islands for the rich traders of Venice and Genoa . 



3. Marco Polo and his book. Just when the long 
wars for the Holy Land were drawing to a close, (§2) 



Hunting for a Water Route to India 




After a medallion in Yule's Life of Marco Polo 



MARCO POLO DICTATING AN ACCOUNT OF HIS 
TRAVELS IN THE FAR EAST 



Marco Polo, living in Venice, began his travels through- 
out eastern Asia, especially in China. He traveled in 

these countries for 



more than twenty 
years. When he re- 
turned he wrote the 
story of all he had seen 
and heard. He told 
of strange peoples and 
their curious customs, 
and of the wonderful 
riches of the cities he 
had visited. To the 
merchants of Europe 
these stories seemed 
an invitation to go to 

the Far East and bring back some of the great riches. 

But the Turkg had broken up the old trade routes. 

A new way to India had to be 

found if Europe was to enjoy 

again the precious stones, the 

rich carpets and shawls, and the 

spices of that far-away land. 
4. New rivals for India's 

trade. Just as Venice and 

Genoa had been rivals for 

trade over the old routes, Por- 
tugal and Spain strove with 

might and main to see who 

should be the first to find a 

new water route to India. At 

first Portugal led, thanks to 

the work of Prince Henry, 




From a colored print 
PRINCE HENRY OF PORTUGAL 



He established a school for sailors on 
Cape St. Vincent 



Europe Discovers America While Seeking India 




VMERICA CofGoo4Uope?T 



PORTUGUESE VOYAGES TO INDIA 

An all-water route to India was the object of the Portuguese 



the "Father 
of Modern 
Geography." 
He gathered 
wise men 
about him to 
study geog- 
raphy prob- 
lems and to 
help find the 
best ways of 
sailing ships. 

He sent his bravest sea captains on voyages down 

the unknown coast of West Africa. The sailors, not 

knowing much about the sea, im- 
agined many terrors: they believed 

a belt of fire ran around the earth 

at the equator, that the waters of 

the ocean ran uphill and downhill 

and that sea giants stood ready 

with great clubs to strike down the 

strongest ships. 

Prince Henry died, but the bold 

sailors of Portugal pushed on down 

the coast of Africa. Finally Dias 

(i486) passed the southern end and 

looked out upon the Indian Ocean. 

Returning he named the point of 

land the "Cape of Storms" but the 

King said: "Call it the Cape of 

Good Hope." For he hoped that 

some fine day his bold seamen would go on past it 

and at last reach India and the real Eastern lands. 




After the statue by Giulio 

Montverdo in the Museum 

of Fine Arta, Boston 

THE BOY COLUMBUS 



Columbus Finds a New World 5 

Before this hope of the King of Portugal came true (§9), 
Columbus, sailing under the Spanish flag, tried to find a 
different way to these Eastern lands. (Map, page 8.) 



COLUMBUS SEEKS A NEW ROUTE AND FINDS A NEW WORLD 

5. Early career of Columbus. Christopher Columbus 
was born in Genoa, probably in 1446. He went to school, 
studied geography and astronomy, and later learned to 
make maps and charts. While yet a boy he often made 




THE VV.JRLD AS KNOWN IN THE TIMS OF COLUMBUS 

voyages on the Mediterranean. But stories of the deeds 
of Prince Henry drew many sailors from Genoa and 
Venice to Portugal. Columbus followed his brother 
there in 1470, and soon found himself in the midst of 
exciting events. His brother had been with Dias on his 
famous voyage, and Columbus began thinking about 
finding a shorter route to India by sailing west. 

Columbus, like many wise men, believed the world to 
be round. A friend in Italy sent him a map which 
2 



6 Europe Discovers America While Seeking India 

made the earth appear much smaller than it really is. 
On this map Japan and China were placed only about 
2,500 miles west of the Canary Islands. For once a 
mistake in geography turned out well. It is not likely 
that any one would have made the voyage had Japan 
and China been shown on the map as they really are, 
12,000 miles to the westward! Columbus was now bent 
on trying to find a shorter way to India by sailing west. 

6. The long struggle for aid. True to the land of his 
birth, Columbus, it is said, offered in vain to make the 
voyage in the name of Genoa. He then turned to Por- 
tugal, his adopted country, but the king deceived him 
and Columbus felt compelled to seek for help in Spain. 

The Spanish rulers, Ferdinand and Isabella, were too 
busy driving the Moors^ (Mohammedans from Africa) 
out of Spain to give Columbus attention. Long years he 
waited (i 484-1 492). He grew tired and discouraged. 




COLUMBUS AND HIS SON ASKING ALMS AT THE CONVENT NEAR PALOS 

The prior of this convent was the person who begged Queen Isabella to call Columbus back 



Columbus Finds a New World 



His money gave out, so, in the fall of 149.1, he decided 
to leave Spain and appeal to the King of France for aid. 

One evening, while 
on his way to France, 
Columbus came near 
the port of Palos. He' 
asked at a convent for 
bread and a drink for 
his son. The prior of 
the convent, struck by 
the noble and dignified 
appearance of Colum- 
bus, invited him in. 
Columbus told him of 
his plans. The prior 
sent to Palos for two 
great sailors, the Pin- 
zons. They listened 
to Columbus and were 
convinced by his story. The prior mounted and rode 
with all speed to the king and queen. The queen de- 
clared that she would pledge her jewels, if necessary, to 
find a new route to India. 

7. The first voyage (1492-1493). Columbus was now 
growing old, but he seemed young again under the excite- 
ment of getting ready for his great voyage. He was 
deeply religious. He pledged the riches he expected to 
find for a war against the Turks for the possession of 
the Holy Land. After solemn religious services, Colum- 
bus and his little fleet of three small vessels said good- 
by to the people of Palos. They sailed out of the harbor 
August 3, 1492. Sad were the hearts of the people and the 
sailors, for neither expected ever to see the others again. 




From the portrait by Antoais van Moor 

Reproduced by pormisMon of C. F. Gunther, Chicago 

CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS 



Europe Discovers America While Seeking India 




A r L A N T I C .,,,rA>s 

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SOUTH AMERICA 



O C J:.' A .V 




THE FOUR VOYAGES OF CtLlMBUS 
The period covered by Columbus on his four voyages to America was twelve years 

They sailed directly to the Canaries, where they spent 
some time in making repairs. When all was ready the 
ships took up their way across an unknown sea. As the 
Canaries faded from sight the sailors broke down and 
cried. For over a month they sailed directly west. The 
sailors grumbled about the winds. When the ships came 
upon a region filled with grass the sailors were frightened 
for fear they would run upon sunken rocks. When the 
compass failed to point to the north star the men went 
wild and threatened to throw Columbus overboard. He 
quieted their fears by calling their attention to signs of 
land, such as green branches and flocks of birds. One 
evening, after they had sung the vesper hymn, he told how 
good the Heavenly Father had been to them, that now 
they were not far from land and no ship should sail after 
midnight. That very night Columbus saw, far in the 
distance, a glimmering light rising and falling as if it were 
carried by some one. On the ship not an eye was closed. 



Columbus Finds a New World 



8. The landing of Columbus ; his return and reception. 

The next morning, October 12, Columbus, with his officers 
and sailors around him, landed on one of the Bahama 
Islands, San Salvador. He was disappointed, for he saw 
no wealth, only half-naked savages. He pushed on and 
discovered Cuba. He lost his largest vessel, and after 
collecting plants, fruits, animals, and Indians set out on 
his return. When Columbus appeared in the harbor of 
Palos once more there was great joy in that old seaport 
town. He hastened at once to the rulers to tell them of 
his great discovery. They received him with pomp and 
splendor. When he retired to his lodgings the people 
followed him with shouts and cheers. How strange all 
this appeared to the man who, two years before, had 
been begging bread for his little son! 

9. Spain and Portugal aroused. The people of Spain 
were the first to be stirred by the news of this great event. 




After the painting by John Vanderlyn 

COLUMBUS CLAIMING POSSESSION BY PLANTING THE FLAG OF SPAIN ON THE 
ISLAND OF SAN SALVADOR 



lo Europe Discovers America While Seeking India 

Everybody wanted Columbus to hasten on a second voy- 
age. Fewer than loo men went out on the first ; now over 




From the paioting by Rieardo Balaca 
THE RECEPTION OF COLUMBUS AT BARCELONA 
This scene must have seemed very strange to the Indians who came with Columbus 

1,500 were to go. Then but three small ships set sail, 
now there were seventeen. All Spain was alive to this 
voyage. But nothing more was discovered than Jamaica 
and Porto Rico. On a third voyage (1498) Columbus 
reached the mouth of the Orinoco, but thought it a river 
of India. On this voyage he was seized by jealous 
Spaniards. They carried him home in chains, but the 
kindly Isabella set him free. He sailed on his last voy- 
age in 1502, but he returned disappointed, despised, and 
neglected. He died in 1506, never dreaming that he had 
given Europe a new world. 

The very land that Columbus discovered was named, 
not after him, but after another, Americus Vespucius. 



Conflicting European Claims to Territory 



II 



Of this man we know very little. He sailed along the 
coast of America and wrote to his friends about it. 
These letters were printed, and his name was given to 
the new country. 

Spain had not found a new way to the East. But 
Portugal had succeeded. Her seaman, Vasco da Gama, 
rounded the Cape of Good Hope and boldly sailed on to 
India (1498). He was welcomed there, and carried home 
a ship load of silks, spices, and other valuable things. A 
new way had been found, and Portugal was now the 
great center for Eastern trade. 



WHERE EUROPE PLANTED INSTITUTIONS 

CONFLICTING EUROPEAN CLAIMS TO TERRITORY 

10. Spain leads Europe. Spain already had posses- 
sion of the West Indies by right of discovery and 
settlement. In 15 13 Ponce de Leon found and named 
Florida, and Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and 
planted the flag of Spain in the waters of the Pacific. 
But 1 5 19 was a most famous year in Spanish history: 
Magellan^ began his three years' voyage around the world 
and Cortes entered upon the conquest of Mexico^ that 




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®PHIUPPINE ISLANDS ^ 
. LADROiieTSLANDS 
,- - ^,.'*4( ,."'c>><;.^(mARIANNE) 





.strait of Magellan 



MAGELLAN AND DRAKE S VOYAGES AROUND THE WORLD 



12 



Where Europe Planted Institutions 



T 



ATLANTIC 



VLF O. 
MEXICO 



^ 1 p-4:--^=-v. ^'*"V OCEAN 




P 4 C 7 ii^ i C 

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year. Magellan proved that the world is round and that 
Columbus had discovered not India but a new world. 

Cortes won a 
city and a coun- 
try for Spain far 
richer than any 
Columbus had 
ever dreamed 
about. Pizarro, 
following the 
example of Cor- 
tes, found Cuzco 
and Peru, the 
richest city and 
country in gold 
and silver in the 
world. Pizarro 
was murdered by 
some of his men. 
II. Mexico 
and Peru. The 
natives in Mex- 
ico and Peru were more civilized than any the Spaniards 
had seen. They had cities, well built houses, and even 
flower gardens. They had rules for trading and judges 
to enforce them. Many things were made of gold and 
more of it was constantly coming from the mines. The 
gold and silver proved to be the ruin of the Spaniards. 
It filled their minds and led them to plunder the country 
rather than build it up. 

12. Spanish missions. With the conquerors were 
others who came not to take away the gold and silver, 
but to teach the natives a better life. In many places 




, Cuzco - 



ROUTES OF THE CONQUERORS, CORTES AND PIZARRO 

Their conquests of Mexico and of Peru brought untold stores 
of riches io Spain 



Confiiciing European Claims to Territory 



13 




they made small settle- 
ments, called "Missions." 

In these were a church, a 

simple school, and perhaps 

a rude hospital. Nearby 

was a carpenter's bench, or 

a forge. Further off were 

cultivated fields. Here the 

missionaries preached and 

taught, trying to make the 

natives Christians and to 

train them in the simple 

arts of everyday life. 
13. The work of De Soto 

(1539) and Coronado(i54o). 

Ferdinand de Soto, one of 

Pizarro's leaders in Peru, 

burned with ambition to outdo his master. He began to 

explore Florida with a large army, treating the Indians 

cruelly. De Soto and his men marched many weary miles. 

They discovered the Mississippi (1541), crossed it, and 

wandered as far 
north as Missouri 
and as far west as 
Oklahoma. Worn 
out and ill, De Soto 
died and was buried 
in the river he had 
discovered. Not 
half of the wretched 
expedition reached 
Cuba, the starting 



After an old engraving 
FRANCISCO P;ZARRO 

Pizarro is known as the Conqueror of Peru 
and her people, called the Incas 




DE SOTO DISCOVERS THE MIGHTY MISSISSIPPI 



place. 



14 



Where Europe Planted Institutions 



Coronado, before he knew the fate of De Soto, marched 
with a large expedition from Mexico into Arizona. He 
probably marched farther north, but failed to find the 
rich cities of Indian tales. Instead, he found vast herds 
of buffaloes, and the towns of the Zuiii cliff dwellers and 
beheld with wonder the beauties and grandeur of the 
Grand Caiion. The Spaniards made permanent settle- 
ments at St. Augustine, Florida (1565), and in New 
Mexico at Santa Fe (1582). But the failures of De Soto 
and Coronado, and the wonderful riches found in Mexico 
and Peru, turned Spain's efforts to the southward. 

14. Spain and her rivals. Spain had taken the lead 
in America. She was now at the height of her power, 
proud of her possessions and rich in the gold that came 
from them. But she had strong rivals in France and 
England. They too were eager to have a share in the 
new world. Could Spain keep them out? She held South 
and Central America. She had made some settlements 




THE ROUTES OF CORONADO AND DE SOTO 

Along these pathways, these soldier-explorers discovered the Grand Canon of the 
Colorado and the great Mississippi River 



Conflicting European Claims to Territory 



IS 



in North America. Could she hold that also? France 
and England were already making claims to a part of it. 




ST. AUGUSTINE IN THE TIME OF MENENDEZ 



From an old print 



15. French claims to American territory. Hardy 
French fishermen had early sought the fine fishing waters 
along the shores of Newfoundland (1504). Verrazano, 
a Florentine sailor under the French flag, visited the 
North American coast from the Carolinas to New Eng- 
land. It is said that he sailed into the Bay of New York 
(1524). In 1534 Jacques Cartier sailed up the St. Law- 
rence River to a place he named Montreal. An effort to 
plant a settlement failed. 

Not until 1605 did France plant her first permanent 
colony, at Port Royal, in Nova Scotia. (Map, page 22.) 
Samuel Chamiplain soon followed with a colony at Quebec 
(1608). Thus France laid the foundation of her empire 
in the northern part of the New World. 

16. French and Spanish in Florida. An attempt to 
settle in Florida was not so successful. It was made by 
a party of Huguenots, as the French Protestants were 



i6 



Where Europe Planted Institutions 



called. They were seeking a new home where they could 
have freedom to worship as they chose. On the advice 
of their great leader, Coligny, they came to America and 
settled on the St. Johns River. Spain claimed all of 
Florida and sent Menendez to destroy them. He was 
merciless and killed nearly all. Other Frenchmen came 
and hanged many Spaniards in revenge. But they could 
not take the fort that Menendez had built. The French 
attempts failed. But the Spanish fort was the beginning 
of the Spanish town, St. Augustine, the oldest permanent 
settlement jn the United States. 

17. The claims of England; John Cabot (1497). Eng- 
land was in the field as soon as stingy Henry VH could 
fit out John Cabot, formerly of Venice but now of Bristol. 
The king sent Cabot forth to find a northwest passage to 

India. Cabot saw 
the eastern coast 
of North America. 
On the basis of this 
discovery Eng- 
land laid claim to 
the whole of North 
America. 

Nearly a hun- 
dred years went 
by before Eng- 
land took advan- 
tage of the voy- 
ages of Cabot. In 
the meantime 
Spain held the southern part of North America and 
France the northern. Bitter rivalry kept them from 
uniting to crush England. When Queen Elizabeth came 




CABOT TAKING POSSESSION OF NORTH AMERICA FOR 
THE KING OF ENGLAND 

On the spot where he landed Cabot planted a large cross 
and beside it the flag of England 



Conflicting European Claims to Territory 



17 




to the throne she found a great quarrel raging with Spain.* 

The English sailors, Hawkins and Drake, took up the 

quarrel and sought Spanish 

treasure ships, cities, and 

colonies. They robbed and 

burned wherever able until 

Drake became the terror of 

the seas. On one voyage he 

sailed into the Pacific and up 

the coast of South America 

to what is now California. 

The next spring he turned his 

prow toward India and sailed 

around the Cape of Good 

Hope. When Drake reached 

home (1580), he was made a 

knight by the queen. 

18. Raleigh finds a better 
way to defeat Spain. Sir 
Walter Raleigh stood high in Elizabeth's favor. He 
hated the Spaniards because they were plotting to kill 
England's queen. He saw that planting colonies was 
a better way to beat the Spaniards than fighting them. 
He told the queen so, and took up this work with enthu- 
siasm. He sent two ships to explore what is now the 
Carolinas (1584). They returned with charming stories 
of what they had seen. The queen named the whole 
country, from^ Maine to Florida, Virginia, in honor of her 
own virgin life. 

A colony of 100 men was sent to America under Ralph 
Lane as governor. They settled on Roanoke Island 
(1585). But they were lazy and instead of raising food 
spent their time in an idle search for gold and silver. 



From the original portrait attributed 
to Sir Antonis van Moor 

SIR FRANCIS DRAKE 

Drake was called by the Spaniards the 
"English Dragon" 



i8 



Where Europe Planted Institutions 



They were facing starvation when Sir Francis Drake 

looked in upon them and carried them home. The 

colonists took with them 
tobacco, which was soon to 
become the basis of Virginia's 
prosperity. But more valu- 
able still was the potato, which 
Sir Walter planted on his Irish 
estates. 

19. The lost colony (1587). 
Spain was growing more and 
more angry and Raleigh hur- 
ried out another colony of 150 
men and women. They occu- 
pied the old nest at Roanoke. 
Here Virginia Dare came to 
brighten the colony. She was 
the first English child who was 
born on American soil. John 
White, the governor of the 

colony, soon returned to England for more supplies. 
But a great Spanish fleet 

of 149 ships of war, carrying 

30,000 soldiers, was now 

swooping down on England. 

Every ship and sailor was 

wanted at home. The great 

battle that followed almost 

destroyed the Spanish fleet. 

England breathed easier, and 

White sailed for Roanoke. 

But three years had gone by, 

and not a colonist could he 




From a portrait painted by Federigo Zuccaro 
SIR WALTER RALEIGH 

Raleigh was one of the favorites oj 
Queen Elizabeth 




POTATO PLANT AND TUBERS 



Conflicting European Claims to Territory 



19 



find. Raleigh sent an old sea captain, Samuel Mace, 
to look for them, but in vain. The word Croatan,^ 




THE SPANISH ARMADA 



More than one hundred and twenty-five vessels sailed from Lisbon to conquer England, 
but only about fifty returned to the home port 

carved upon a tree, was the only word they had left 
behind. They were indeed a lost colony. 

Raleigh had spent most of his fortune. But he did 
not lose heart, for he declared: "I shall yet live to see 
it an English nation." He was a true prophet. Before 
he died a great colony had been planted in Virginia: 
vessels loaded with the products of the colony had sailed 
into London port, an Indian "princess" had married 
a Virginian and had been received by the king and queen. 

20. The struggle begins. Spain now held the southern 
part of North America. France claimed the great valley 
of the St. Lawrence. Between them the English had 
explored the Atlantic coast and made their first attempt 
to settle there. The Dutch were soon to enter the Hudson 
River. Now begins a race between these three nations. 
Which would finally control North America? 

Would the Spanish go from the Gulf of Mexico up the 
great Mississippi valley? Would the French be quicker 



20 



Where Europe Planted Institutions 




Baltimore r J' ' '' 







' -Ty- "'e;/^^ ! \^ T;. May 



^ 



and pass into it first from the St. Lawrence valley? Or 
could the steady English and the Dutch settle the coast 

and then push over the 
mountains before the 
others gained the heart of 
the country? 

Between the Atlantic 
coast and the valley of 
the Mississippi ran a great 
line of mountains, the 
Appalachian range. But 
in it were gaps through 
which they might easily 
pass as the Indians had 
long done. 

It was to be a hard race 
and a long one. But in 
the way of all stood the 
Indians. For in claiming 
American territory no 
nation was troubled by 
the fact that the land they 
sought was already occu- 
pied. It was understood 
that heathen tribes had no rights of possession that 
Christians were bound to respect. It was only important 
to be the first European nation to discover a country 
and then to settle it at once. 



EARLY SETTLEMENTS IN "VIRGINI.\" 

The swamps about Pamlico Sound made 

permanent setllement impossible 

in this region 



THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN 

21. The first Americans. Columbus called the people 
in America Indians because he was certain he had dis- 
covered parts of India. The Indians differed greatly 



The North American Indian 



21 



among themselves. In Central America they had erected 
fine temples, but these were in ruins when Columbus came. 
In both Peru and Mexico they had built mighty stone 
walls, had erected wonderful cities, and wore cotton clothes. 
In what is now Arizona and New Mexico still live the 
Pueblo In- 



dians in their 
flat-roofed 
buildings 
gathered in 
villages. In 
the prairie 
regions the 
Indians lived 
intents. They 
moved from 
place to place 
to find better 
grass, more 
abundant 
water, and 
plenty of 
game. South 
of the Great 
Lakes and 
eastward to 
the Hudson 




From an engraving by De Bry after a drawing 
made by Governor John White 

THE INDIAN TOWN OF POMEIOOC, VIRGINIA 



lived the Five Nations, forming a union or confederacy. 
They were great warriors. South of the Ohio were warlike 
tribes — the Powhatans, the Cherokees, the Chickasaws, 
Catawbas, Natchez, Choctaws, Creeks, and Seminoles. 
22. Indian characteristics and character. The Indians 
were copper colored, hence some have thought that they 



22 



Where Europe Planted Institutions 



came originally from Asia. The men, eastward from 
the Rocky Mountains, were tall, straight, and graceful, 
with piercing black eyes. Their cheek 
bones were high and their hair coarse, 
jet black, and straight. The women wore 
their hair long, but the warrior took pride 
in his scalp lock, a challenge to his enemy 
to take it if he could. They all loved 
show and took delight in bright colors. 
The Indians were silent and dignified. 
They were great warriors. Among them 
were also found great orators who could 
recite their wonderful deeds or paint their 
wrongs with great power. 

23. The Indian as a warrior. Fight- 
ing was one ,of the Indian's chief occu- 
pations. When the white man came, the 
Indian was armed principally with bow 
AN INDIAN WARRIOR ^^^ avTOw , and a rude stone hatchet 
which he called a tomahawk. When going to war the 
Indian painted his body and face in most hideous fashion 
and put on his headdress of eagle feathers and claws to 
strike terror into the enemy. When all was ready the 
warriors gathered around a fire and indulged in a great 
war dance. They made hideous faces, screaming their 
war cries and shaking their weapons at imaginary foes. 
The war dance over they began their m? ch, single 
file, with noiseless tread. They seldom fought openly, 
but crept up silently and lay in wait for the enemy to 
appear. Then they sprang upon him, terrifying him 
with most awful yells, striking him down with the deadly 
tomahawk, and scalping him. Or it might be that they 
fought concealed by a dense forest, all the time keeping 




The North American Indian 



23 



up the most frightful yelHng. They wished to give the 
impression of great numbers while in fact their number 
was small. 

The Indian was a faithful friend but a most cruel 
enemy. His cruelty was shown in his treatment of 
prisoners. Sometimes indeed the prisoner was adopted 
into the tribe, and if not too old became a wife or a 
warrior. Some captives were enslaved, but more often 
they were tortured to death by any means which the 
savage mind could invent; maybe the prisoner was 
burned at the stake while warrior and squaw danced 
around with fiendish delight, heaping all sorts of abuse 
upon the dying prisoner. 

24. Indian knowledge. Because his home was in 
the dense forest and on the broad prairie the Indian 
knew the sights and sounds 
of both. Because beasts, 
birds, and fish gave him food 
and clothing, he knew their 
hiding places. He knew how 
to take the fleet-footed deer, 
to trap the wary beaver, the 
sly fox, and the great bear, 
and to set snares for the wild 
fowl. He could imitate the 
sounds of beasts and birds to 
perfection. His ears and eyes 
were keen. He could make his 
way through deep forests by 
noting the thickness of the 
bark upon the trees. He was 
seldom surprised by an enemy. In the northern regions 
he fashioned a birch-bark canoe so small that only one 




AN INDIAN SQUAW 



24 Where Europe Planted Institutions 

person could ride in it, or a canoe so large that it held 
a dozen fierce warriors. In the south he dug or burned 
out his canoe from the trunk of some great tree. 

25. The Indian woman. The woman was the warrior's 
drudge. She did all the hard work. She planted the 
little patches of land and tilled them and gathered 
the products when harvest time came. She made the 
clothing, furnished the tents, and made the baskets and 
mats and other articles. When the tribe or family moved 
she carried the tent poles, and put up the tent unaided 
by the warrior. The children were the objects of her care. 
The "papoose" or Indian baby was carried strapped upon 
a board on the mother's back. 

26. Distribution and government of the Indians. The 
number of Indians was never large and the tribes were 
widely scattered. They needed vast regions for hunting 
grounds. The Indian race was divided into families, and 
the families into tribes. The largest families were the 
Algonquin, the Iroquois, the Muskhogean, the Sioux, 
the Shoshones, and the families of California. Each 
tribe had a number of head men called sachems. Weap- 
ons and ornaments belonged to the individual Indian, 
but land belonged to the tribe. 

The Indians lacked a strong government. The best 
example of a united government was furnished by the 
Five Nations, or the Iroquois. They formed a confed- 
eracy or loose kind of union. The Iroquois could put 
several hundred trained warriors into the field, and their 
friendship was sought by all nations. It was fortunate 
for the white people that the red men had only a weak 
government. Even as it was the Indians of North 
America were the greatest obstacle the white man had 
to meet when getting a foothold on this continent. 



Period of Colonization 
VIRGINIA: THE FIRST SOUTHERN COLONY 

TRYING EXPERIMENTS 

27. The first preparations. For many years after 
Raleigh's failure vessels trading with the Indians returned 




After a drawing made early in the nmeteenth century 
by an English traveler, Catherine C. Hopley 



THE SITE OF JAMESTOWN 



with the most wonderful stories of Virginia's beauty and 
riches. Finally the king divided all Virginia between 
the London and the Plymouth companies.^ He gave 
the same charter to each colony. He promised the 
settlers and their children that they should be English- 
men "as if they had been abiding and born within the 
realm of England." But the king took good care to 
keep most of the government in his own hands. 

With the help of preachers and poets, pamphlets and 
books, 105 persons were finally found willing to go to 
Virginia. The people perhaps remembered the fate of 
Raleigh's "lost colony." About half of the colonists 
were "gentlemen," who did not work with their hands 

25 



26 



Virginia: The First Southern Colony 



and who did not expect to stay in Virginia. The others 
were laborers, attracted by the hope of riches, and were 
no more wilHng to work than the gentlemen. There was 
not a single farmer among them. Not the best kind of 
material for a colony! 

28. The settlement made (1607). In May, with all 
nature at its best, three ships carried the settlers into 
the mouth of Chesapeake Bay. They landed where the 
Company had told them not to land — on a low, marshy 
peninsula, thirty-five miles above the mouth of James 
River. A rude fort was quickly built and cannon 
were mounted to protect the colony against the Indians 
and the Spaniards (§17), who were watching the outcome. 

Had the settlers 
been ever so indus- 
trious they would 
have found many 
things more inter- 
esting than work. 
They were in a 
new world, among 
strange sights and 
sounds ; about them 
were great forests 
alive with wild 
birds and savage 
beasts. Here lived 
a race of men 
with strange man- 
ners and customs 
and with natures 
only a little less sav- 
age than the beasts. 




LONDON AND PLYMOUTH COMPANIES 

The charter of these companies allowed them to 
plant settlements one hundred miles inland 



Trying Experiments 



27 




From an engraving on the margin of 
Smith's map of "New England" 

JOHN SMITH 

John Smith, who had been put in 

chains on the way over, came 

to the head of things by 

his own efforts 



What wonders their imagina- 
tions pictured! A few hundred 
miles inland might be another 
people living in rich cities like 
the Mexicans; or just over the 
mountains, the Pacific Ocean; 
among the hills, mines as rich as 
those of Peru; or deeper in the 
forests, streams whose waters 
flowed over sands of gold. These 
wild fancies led to idleness. Poor 
food, bad water, and a hot cli- 
mate sent more than half the 
settlers to their graves before fall. 

28. John Smith, the hero of 
early Virginia. Among the set- 
tlers of Virginia was John Smith, a hero of many daring 
deeds against the Turks. In the midst of this gloom. 
Smith came to the front and took charge of the govern- 
ment. He had already explored several rivers, traded 

yq,; _s^--^ ^ ) with the Indians, 

i fes°t; ^^^ h^*^ been cap- 
' ^ '^ tured and taken 
before Powhatan, 
the Indian chief. 
Fontunately he 
won the favor of 
Pocahontas,^ the 
chief's daughter, 
who kept the 
peace between 

THE MARRIAGE OF ROLFE AND POCAHONTAS her peOple and 

They visited England where Pocahontas was received fVio rxrVii-t-oo a-nA 

as an Itidian "princess" une WniXCS, anQ 




28 Virginia: The First Southern Colony 

afterwards married John Rolfe. From this union sprang 
some of the proudest families of Virginia. 

Smith saved the colony by compelling the idlers to 
work. More settlers came, but Smith complained to the 
company. He declared, "When you send again, better 
send but thirty carpenters, husbandmen, gardeners, 
fishermen, blacksmiths, masons, and diggers of trees' 
roots, well provided, than one thousand of such as we 
have!" 

30. The starving time (1609-1610). Smith's advice 
was not taken. More people of the same kind were sent 
over. But he compelled every man to work, resolutely 
asserting that "he that will not work shall not eat." 
Unfortunately Smith was wounded by an explosion of 
gunpow^der and had to go to England. Disorder at once 
broke loose. The lazy refused to work. The Indians 
kept back supplies and lay in wait to kill and scalp the 
settlers. Not enough houses had been built, and some 
people died from exposure. Food grew scarce, and 
scores starved. By spring only 60 out of 500 were alive. 
It was decided to leave Jamestown, but as the settlers 
sailed down the river they were overjoyed to behold 
three well-stocked vessels in the command of Lord 
Delaware. Jamestown was reoccupied. 

31. The new charter (1609); a new kind of governor 
(161 1). The king came to the aid of the company and 
gave it a new charter. He extended its claim 200 miles 
each way up and down the coast from Old Point 
Comfort and "up into the land throughout from sea 
to sea, west and northwest." A governor with abso- 
lute authority, Sir Thomas Dale, now took charge of the 
colony. A bold soldier, he ruled by military law. His 
title was "High Marshal of Virginia." Offenders were 



Winning a Foothold 



29 



punished with terrible severity, but there was order in 
Jamestown. Dale gave each settler a plot of land to 




^X^^ yj. ^.^ G A X A U A 




TERRITORY CLAIMFD BY VIRGINIA UNDER THE CHARTER OF 1609 

This grant greatly enlarged the territory previously held by the London 

Company. Compare with map on page 26. You can see why 

Virginia 2cas called the "old dominion" 

work for himself. The effect was magical ; even the lazy 
went to work. Prosperity smiled on the colony for the 
first time. The long period of experiment was coming 
to an end. 

WINNING A FOOTHOLD 

32. Raising tobacco makes Virginia prosperous. Eng- 
land was learning to smoke, but could not raise much 
tobacco. Virginia could. John Rolfe first began to culti- 
vate it. It turned out the best paying crop in the colony. 
The people became enthusiastic and planted the very 
streets of Jamestown. Plantations sprang up on each 
side of the James, and the people became content to 



30 



Virginia: The First Southern Colony 



spend their lives in Virginia. Before, everybody expected 
to return to England. Now they were willing to stay. 



^•^ -^ 




ROLLING TOBACCO TO MARKET 

The first settler to cultivate tobacco in Virginia was John Rolfe, who became the 

husband of Pocahontas 

Tobacco raising brought two classes of persons to Vir- 
ginia: those wanting to obtain land to raise tobacco, and 
those who became laborers on the plantations. This 
second class were called "indentured" servants because, 
too poor to pay their way, they were bound by written 
agreement to work for the planter for a number of years. 
The custom of having indentured laborers spread through- 
out all the colonies. 

33. America's first representative assembly (1619). 
The wisest men in the London Company saw that the 
settlers needed a better government than Dale had set up. 
They sent Sir George Yeardley as governor with a new char- 
ter or constitution. They sent him with orders to summon 
a representative assembly, called the House of Burgesses. 
This met July 30 in the little wooden church at James- 
town and began the work of self-government in America. 

Yeardley and his council, with hats on, took the front 
seats while the burgesses took the rear. The assembly 



Winning a Foothold 



31 



was opened with prayer, after which each member took 
the oath. A speaker, a clerk, and a sergeant were elected 
and sat facing the assembly. Yeardley's instructions 
were brought in and read in order to see whether there 
was "any law pressing or binding too hard, because this 
great charter is to bind us and our heirs forever," the 
burgesses said. Dale's "cruell lawes" were set aside and 
better ones took their place. One law punished the 
settlers for not attending the English Church. 

When the Revolution came 150 years later, the House 
of Burgesses furnished both camp and Congress with a 
longer list of brilliant men than any other assembly in 
America. Among them were Washington, Jefferson, 
Madison, Monroe, Richard Henry Lee, Patrick Henry, 
Pendleton, Harrison, Bland, Randolph, and Mason. . 

34. Family and social life in Virginia (1619). With 
the govern- 



me n t m 
their own 
hands and 
with a new 
means of 
making a 
living open 
to all, Vir- 
ginia was in 
a fair way 
to prosper. 

P_ THE LANDING OF THE YOUNG WOMEN ON VIRGINIA'S SHORES 

had come to the colony, but in 1619 a shipload of maidens, 
"young, handsome and chaste," came to cheer the lonely 
bachelors in Virginia. From all the plantations around 
Jamestown came the settlers to choose their wives or to 




32 Virginia: The First Southern Colony 

be chosen. It was not long until woman's hand was seen 
in better and happier homes. Within three years no less 
than 3,500 people came to the colony. 

35. The Dutch introduce slavery. In 161 9 a Dutch 
vessel landed twenty negroes at Jamestown and sold 
them as slaves to the planters. Slavery already existed 
in the Spanish colonies and in many other lands. It soon 
found its way into every English colony. In Virginia 
the soil, climate, and leading occupation favored slavery. 
The slaves came slowly at first, but by 1700 they num- 
bered nearly a fourth of the people. 

36. The Indian massacre (1622); the last days of the 
Company (1624). The new Indian chief hated the 
English. He saw that they were cutting down the for- 
ests and thus spoiling his hunting grounds. Almost 
without warning the Indians fell upon the settlers and 
killed and scalped 400 of them. Scores of miles up and 
down the James River the plantations were attacked 
and destroyed. The whites took terrible revenge and 
pursued the Indians deep into the forests. 

King James now saw his opportunity. He blamed all 
the colony's troubles on the London Company and took 
away its charter. The Company had done too well by 
the colony : they had granted the boon of self-government 
and had spent ;;^i 50,000 in founding the barrier Raleigh 
had wished to see (§18) against the Spaniards. 

VIRGINIA A ROYAL COLONY 

37. Taxation in England and in Virginia. The English 
people denied the right of the king to levy taxes without 
the vote of Parliament.^ The Virginians took the same 
ground, and the burgesses again and again voted that no 
tax should be raised in the colony without their consent. 



Virginia a Royal Colony 



33 




Governor Harvey was turned out of office for wasting the 

taxes and for giving away lands belonging to the people. 

King Charles, who had been 

raising taxes unjustly, put 

him back in office. But Sir 

William Berkeley soon took 

Harvey's place (1642). 

38. The Puritans and Cav- 
aliers. For a long time the 

Puritans in England had been 

quarreling with the king over 

church matters. Many of 

them had come to Virginia, 

but Governor Berkeley, who 

was a king's man, and the 

burgesses drove them out of 

the colony. More than one 

thousand of the Puritans 

went to Maryland, where there was religious toleration. 

In England the Puritans and the 
king soon went to war. Nothing 
could check the victorious Puritans 
under their great general, Cromwell. 
He took the king prisoner and the 
Puritan Parliament beheaded him. 
Cromwell ruled in his stead. 

The Puritans drove out many of 
the Cavaliers, as the king's friends 
were called. Hundreds of them 
were received with open arms by 
the Virginians, They were great 
people in the eyes of the simple 
They were educated, refined, and brave, and 



From a portrait painted by Sir Anthony 
Vandyke after Sir Peter Lely 

CHARLES I., KING OF ENGLAND 




A CAVALIER 

A type of the king's followers 

who were forced to flee to 

A merica 



colonists. 



34 



Virginia: The First Southern Colony 



added greatly to the welfare of Virginia. She had lost 
the Puritans, but gained the Cavaliers. From them 

came sorrie of the 
greatest names in 
the history of 
Virginia (§33). 

39. Cromwell 
rules Virginia 
( I 652 - I 660) . 
When Cromwell's 
battleships ap- 
peared Berkeley 
and the Cava- 
liers made ready 
to fight. Fortu- 
nately they agreed 
to submit on con- 
dition that they 
were "to enjoy 
such freedom and 
privileges as belong to the free-born people of England." 
Berkeley ceased to be governor and retired grumbling 
to his manor house. The burgesses for the first time 
elected a governor and council and ruled Virginia. Dur- 
ing this period Cavalier and Puritan lived in peace and 
Virginia enjoyed a free government, free trade, and free- 
dom in religion. But the death of Cromwell brought 
Charles II to the throne. There was great rejoicing in 
Virginia, for most of the settlers w^ere warm supporters 
of the king. 

40. The king's friends again in power. Berkeley now 
became governor again and the burgesses passed laws 
banishing Baptists, Quakers, and others who did not 




CROMWELL DISSOLVES PARLIAMENT 



Virginia a Royal Colony 



35 



worship after the manner of the Church of England. 
The burgesses now held their seats for sixteen years with- 
out a new election. This was like the king's Parliament 
in England. 

Parliament had passed the Navigation Act^ (165 1), but 
Cromwell had agreed not to enforce the law. The new 
king was not generous and compelled the colonists to 
obey the law. Even Berkeley, the friend of the king, 
joined the planters in crying out against it. Under this 
law Virginians could send or receive goods only in English 
ships, thus giving {; .^ 
the British mer- 
chant a great ad- 
vantage. Charles 
II cared little for 
the loyalty of the 
people of Virginia, 
for he gave away^:; 
the entire colony ^ 
(1673) to two of 
his favorites. The 
people raised such 
a protest that 
nothing came of 
the gift. 

41. Bacon's Re- 
bellion (1676). 
Matters had been 
getting worse in 
the colony. An 
I ndian attack 
caused the outbreak. Berkeley, fearing to lose their 
trade, refused to punish them. Nathaniel Bacon led his 




BACON AND HIS FOLLOWERS 

Demanding from Governor Berkeley permission 

to fight the Indians 



36 Virginia: The First Southern Colony 

angry neighbors against the Indians, and Berkeley de- 
clared him a rebel. Bacon and his men started for 
Jamestown and demanded the governor's permission to 
fight the Indians. Berkeley finally gave it, but Bacon 
and his men were no sooner gone than Berkeley left 
Jamestown and finally collected a body of soldiers. The 
two bands met near Jamestown. Bacon was victorious, 
and burned the town. 

Suddenly, at the height of his power. Bacon was taken 
sick and died. His followers scattered but Berkeley 
came back bent on revenge. He hunted down the brave 
men who had followed Bacon. He hanged more than 
twenty, threw others into jail, and took away the property 
of many. Even the king was disgusted at his cruelty, 
for he declared that "the old fool has put to death more 
people in that naked country than I did here for the 
death of my father." The king called the governor 
home. But when Berkeley reached England the king 
refused to see him, and he died broken-hearted. 

42. The new capitol and a famous college. The 
capital was removed from Jamestown to Williamsburg, 
where the capitol ornamented one end of a beautiful 
broad street and soon the new College of William and 
Mary (1693) the other. For over 200 years this college 
has continued to send out leaders for Virginia and 
America. Today a vine-covered tower is all that remains 
of Jamestown. In 1907, however, the United States 
bade all the world come to join in the celebration of the 
settlement of Jamestown by holding an exposition on 
Hampton Roads. 

43. The Scotch-Irish and Germans. Shortly after 1700 
a vigorous lot of people, Scotch-Irish Presbyterians from 
northern Ireland, came into the charming valley of the 



Maryland: A New Kind of Colony 



37 



Shenandoah, and settled near Winchester. The Germans 
in smaller numbers came soon after. The hardy Scotch- 
Irish made their way steadily southward and settled the 
mountain region far down into the Carolinas. They 
were among our bravest soldiers in the Revolutionary War. 



THE OTHER SOUTHERN COLONIES 

MARYLAND: A NEW KIND OF COLONY 

44. A place for both Catholics and Protestants (1634). 

For nearly a hundred years the Roman Catholics and 
the Protestants had persecuted each other in England. 
George Calvert, to whom the king had given the title of 




Orij^inal cl arter boundary as claimed b) pro[)iietors --• 

Present boundary 

THE MARYLAND COLONY 

Showing the early settlements and the original and present boundaries of the colony 
(See also map on page 72) 

Lord Baltimore, was moved by the sufferings of his fellow 
Catholics to find them a home in America. Charles I 
gave him a part of Virginia and named the country 
3 



38 



The Other Southern Colonies 



Maryland in honor of the queen, Henrietta Maria, a 
French princess and a Catholic. Lord Baltimore died 
and Cecil Calvert, on whom the title fell, took up his 
father's cause. In the first days of spring (1634) two 
ships, the "Ark" and the "Dove," sailed into the mouth 
of the Potomac with 20 "gentlemen" and 200 laborers. 
They chose a place, named it St. Mary's, and began the 
work of building the colony of Maryland. 

45. A new kind of colony. Maryland differed from 
Virginia in several ways. Not only were the people at 
first different, but the king made Lord Baltimore the 
owner or "proprietor" of the colony. He could appoint 
the governor, choose the judges, and give away the land 
or sell it as he pleased. Only the king could do these 
things in Virginia. Baltimore was almost a king in 




GOVERNOR CALVERT LOCATING THE VILLAGE OF ST. MARY'S 

Maryland. For the use of this great power he had 
pledged himself to give the king each year two arrows 
and one fifth of the gold and silver found in the colony. 



Maryland: A New Kind of Colony 



39 



In other ways the two colonies differed: Maryland 
established religious toleration; she never had a starv- 
ing time; her people did not 
suffer from Indians as did 
the Virginians. 

46. Maryland's troubles. 
Maryland had a happy be- 
ginning, but troubles soon 
came. The Virginians were 
not pleased because Mary- 
land had been made out of 
land claimed by Virginia, and 
had been given to a Roman 
Catholic. Besides, the king ^^^ 
had granted Kent Island, in 
the Chesapeake, to William 
Claiborne, a big man in 
Virginia. Now Baltimore 
claimed it belonged to Mary- 
land and drove Claiborne 
away. When the Puritans fled from Virginia to Mary- 
land (§38) they settled Providence, later called Annap- 
olis, a rival of St. Mary's. When civil war^" came in 
England, Baltimore took the side of his friend the king 
and opposed the Puritans and Cromwell. Claiborne saw 
his chance, joined hands with the Puritans, defeated the 
Catholics, and captured St. Mary's. After Cromwell's 
warships (§39) made a favorable treaty with Virginia 
they went to Maryland, and encouraged the Puritans. 
The latter set up their own rule, would not permit a 
Catholic to hold office, and passed an act declaring toler- 
ation for all except Catholics. Another battle was fought, 
and the Catholics left one third their number on the field. 




After a portrait in possessluu or tne 
Maryland Historical Society 

CECIL CALVERT 

Second Lord Baltimore 



40 



The Other Southern Colonies 



47. The fate of the proprietors. Peace came when 
Cromwell, the greatest of the Puritans, restored Balti- 
more's authority on the promise of everlasting toleration, 
and when Virginia granted Claiborne land for his loss of 
Kent Island. Maryland now rejoiced in her prosperity 
until the great revolution in England (1688) shook the 
colonies. News came that the people of England had 
driven King James II from the throne. The Protestants, 
now in a large majority, again overthrew the rule of Lord 
Baltimore. 

William and Mary, who came to the throne after 
James had fled, made Maryland a royal province, and 
there every one had to pay taxes to support the English 
Church. The Baltimores were again restored, and ruled 
Maryland until the American Revolution destroyed their 
power forever. No other troops did better service in 

this war than did 



the "Maryland 
Continentals." 
Fighting in dis- 
tant States, they 
became the pride 
of the continent. 



..■■■-'■':^*:-/'>^~'i'R G'l N I A 

-(. FayetteviU: 

)u:^H \ 

:tLINA .X/O'C. Fear 



-"'.."i»Charleston 

Tort Royal 
annah 
tl33 
rederica /7j6 

MUESLANO I. 

Caroline /j6^ 
Augustine 
1505 








THE CAROLINA AND GEORGIA COLONIES 

The areas of the colonies remained as here shown until 

the dose of the Revolution 



CAROLINA: THE 
HOME OF MANY 
KINDS OF PEOPLE 

48. First settle- 
ments. The re- 
gion now known 
as North and 
South Carolina 



was at first one colony and was called simply CaroHna 
But the settlements in it soon fell into two distinct 



Carolina: The Home of Many Kinds of People 41 






groups, one in the north, the other in the south, and these 
grew into two separate colonies. (Map, page 40.) 

Naturally the northern part 
was settled earlier. It was just 
across the Virginia line, and at- 
tracted from that colony men who 
disliked the laws of Virginia or 
wished new lands. A band of 
these came in 1653, and made 
their homes along the shores of 
Albemarle Sound. Others came 
soon after. Here in the new coun- 
try they lived the free life of the 
pioneer. On small farms, often 
far from all neighbors, they raised 
their simple products and sold 
them to the traders whose ships 
came to their homes. They en- 
joyed their independence and 
resented any interference with it. 

The freedom of the forests soon drew .others, who came 
from distant lands. French Protestants, called Hugue- 
nots, settled not far away at Bath and found the religious 
freedom that was denied them at home. Near them a 
party of Swiss and Germans founded a town which they 
named New Berne after a famous Swiss city. 

Thus began a group of small settlements which later 
grew into the colony of North Carolina. 

In the southern part of Carolina the early settlements 
clustered about the beautiful valley of the Ashley and 
Cooper rivers. Here came in 1670 a shipload of men 
and women from England, and founded Charleston. 
This town was at first on the western bank of the Ashley, 




A HUGUENOT GENTLEMAN 
The Huguenots seltled in Charles- 
Ion in large numbers 



42 



lite Other Southern Colonies 



but a few years later was moved across to its present site 
at the junction of the two rivers. Here it prospered. 




After an engravin; 



THE CITY OF CHARLESTON IN 1 742 



It became the center of life in all that part of the colony 
and a protection against the Spaniards in Florida. 

49. The "Grand Model." CaroHna was given by an 
English king to a group of favorites. . They were called 
the proprietors. One of them asked his friend, John 
Locke, a great philosopher, to draw up a plan of govern- 
ment for the colony. They called it the "Grand Model." 
There were to be great lords known by high sounding titles 
and owning large tracts of land, while the people were 
to have little power and be scarcely better than slaves. 
Of course the "Grand Model" proved a grand failure. 
The hardy Carolinians loved their liberty and refused to 
submit to the new plan. 

50. The overthrow of the proprietors. The proprietors 
usually lived in England and knew little about the needs 
of the colonies. Often they were more interested in 
getting the rent from their lands than in raising money 
to protect the far-away settlers from the Spaniards and 
the Indians. 



Carolina: The Home of Many Kinds of People 43 

Some of the governors whom they sent out proved to 
be bad men. They made harsh rules about taxes, or inter- 
fered roughly with trade or with religion. This led to 
quarrels with the people, who were independent in spirit, 
like all men in a new country; and several of the worst 
governors were forcibly driven out. At last the propri- 
etors grew weary of their attempt to govern the colonies 
and sold their rights to the king. Thus South Carolina 
became a royal colony in 1 7 1 9 and North Carolina in 1 7 2 9 . 

51. Wars with the Indians. The Indians and the early 
settlers got on well at first. But as more white men 
came over, they began to crowd the Indians from their 
old hunting grounds and trouble arose. The strongest 
tribe in North Carolina was the Tuscaroras. These 
secretly planned a terrible massacre of the colonists. 
The blow fell heaviest on New Berne, where over 100 
men, women, and children were killed, many of them 
being horribly tortured (17 11). Quickly men gathered 
from both North and South Carolina, and the Tuscaroras 
were crushed. They finally joined their kinsmen, the 
Iroquois, in New York (§86). 

Scarcely had the Indians in North Carolina been sub- 
dued when a more dangerous outbreak occurred in South 
Carolina. There a powerful tribe, the Yamassees, urged 
on by the Spaniards, formed a plot with other strong 
tribes and fell suddenly upon the settlers (17 15). The 
struggle was desperate and more than 400 colonists were 
killed and many farms plundered. Finally the Yamassees 
were overcome and driven into Florida. 

52. Danger from the Spaniards. The Spaniards in 
Florida viewed with jealousy the growth southward of 
the Carolinas, and did what they could to hinder it. 
Sometimes they fell upon outlying settlements; sometimes 



44 



The Other Southern Colonies 



they threatened Charleston itself, which was the greatest 
English rival of their own town, St. Augustine. At 
length, in 1706, while the countries in Europe were at 
war, and yellow fever was raging in Charleston, a Spanish 
and French fleet sailed into the harbor and demanded the 
surrender of the city. But they had not counted on the 
bravery of the Carolinians, and were driven off with the 
loss of their best ship and 300 men (§139). 

53. The people of the Carolinas. No other colony was 
settled by so many kinds of people as the Carolinas. 

'.. . There were stern Puritans, and lively Cav- 

aliers, as well as quiet Quakers. Later 
came the picturesque Scotch Highlanders, 
driven from home by political misfortune, 
and the sturdy Scotch-Irish, seeking free- 
dom for their religion and their business. 
With these English-speaking people 
there were also many from foreign coun- 
tries. Industrious Germans sought, like 
the Scotch-Irish, the lands nearer the 
mountains. These pioneers built up the 
frontier settlements. Not less important 
were the French Huguenots," who left 
their country because of religious persecu- 
tion. They settled chiefly in South Caro- 
lina and had a strong influence in the 
colony. 

54. How the Carolinas differed. In North Carolina 
the towns did not grow-rapidly. Most of the people were 
small farmers and had few slaves. On their farms they 
raised what they themselves needed and sent tobacco, 
corn, and cattle abroad. From the great pine forests 
they cut timber and made tar and turpentine. These 




A TYPICAL SCOTCH 
HIGHLANDER 

Many of these lejt 
England because of 
opposition to the 
king, and settled in 
North Carolina 



Carolina: The Home of Many Kinds of People 45 

they sold in large quantities to other countries. They led 
a democratic life and were a hardy, independent people. 




A CHARLESTON MANSION 

The ornamental gateway and palisade, the spacious gallery, the many windows of this typical 

Southern mansion, reflect architecturally the proud yet gay and 

hospitable spirit of the South 

In South Carolina circumstances made life somewhat 
different. In 1693 a ship from far-away Madagascar 
sailed into Charleston harbor, carrying by chance a bag 
of rice. This was planted and rice soon became for 
South Carolina what tobacco was for Virginia, the chief 
crop of the colony (§32). By 1740 it is thought to have 
been worth $1,000,000 a year. 

Slavery was early introduced by well-to-do planters 
who came from the English colony in the Barbados. The 
negroes proved to be well adapted to work in the rice 
fields, and their numbers increased rapidly, in spite of 
efforts to restrict their importation. 

There were, of course, many small farms in South 
Carolina on which life went on very much as it did in 
North Carolina. But the prosperous city of Charleston, 
with its neighboring rice plantations and its flourishing 



46 The Other Southern Colonies 

trade with England and other countries, brought about 
a new and different kind of life in this colony. 

55. The city of Charleston. The great port of the 
colony was Charleston. Here were loaded on ships the 

■rice, indigo, timber, and other products that were sent 
abroad. To it in return came the varied products 
of the Old World. Here lived the business men who 
handled the growing trade, and here also lived the rich 
planters whose lands lay within reach of the city. As 
Charleston prospered it became the richest city south of 
Philadelphia and the greatest center of social life in the 
southern colonies. The well-to-do Charlestonian found 
time for business and for pleasure. He was generous in 
his entertainment of visitors. He gave frequent dinners, 
balls, and parties. He attended the theater and the 
races. He was proud of his city and of his mansion, 
for which the bricks were imported and the furnishings 
bought in the shops of London. He delighted in its 
wide halls and its broad piazza, in his spirited horses 
and his fine carriage with the coat of arms on its door. 
But he was thoughtful as well as happy. He built 
churches and took a lively interest in them. He 
founded libraries, collected and read books, and met with 
his friends to discuss them. He established schools and 
cared for the education of his children. 

GEORGIA: A REAL SPANISH BARRIER 

56. Still another kind of colony. Georgia was the last 
of the thirteen colonies, and was not settled until long 
after the Carolinas. James Edward Oglethorpe, who 
had won renown as a soldier and fame as a member 
of Parliament, became interested in English prisons. 
He was shocked at the treatment of poor debtors. An 



Georgia: A Real Spanish Barrier 



47 




SEAL OF GEORGIA 
COLONY 



honest man might be put in jail for owing another a dol- 
lar. By fines put upon him by corrupt jailors he might 
be held in jail while his family was 
in poverty until his own health was 
broken down by the foul place called 
his prison. The heart of the noble 
Oglethorpe was deeply touched. He 
formed the plan of taking the honest 
and able-bodied debtors to the New 
World, where they might begin life 

anew with fresh hopes of success. 

Another motive moved Oglethorpe and the English 

government to plant Georgia. Spain was jealous of the 

Carolinas because she 

claimed this region for 

herself. When war 

came between France 

and England she joined 

France. Together they 

made a strong and 

dangerous attack on 

Charleston (§52). It 

failed, fortunately, but 

it set Englishmen to 

thinking. They felt 

that the time had come 

when they must plant 

a barrier colony right 

in the face of the 

Spaniards. 
57. Getting ready 

to settle. To carry out these noble plans of Oglethorpe 

ParHament joined hands with generous-hearted people 




From an original portrait painted by 
Simon Francois Ravenet 

JAMES EDWARD OGLETHORPE 

Oglethorpe was a soldier and a member of 

Parliament. He was loved by the poor 

and by the American Indian 



4S 



The Other Southern Colonies 



in raising $500,000. The men composing the "associa- 
tion" were granted a charter by George II and in turn 
the colony was named for the king. Oglethorpe was 
made governor, and for twenty-one years the people 
were to take no part in the government of the colony. 
Four unusual laws, for that time, were passed : one for- 
bade the holding of slaves, a second prohibited the sale 
of strong drink, a third promised foreigners equal rights 
with Englishmen, and a fourth law declared for religious 
toleration except for Roman Catholics. At the news of 
Oglethorpe's work many people wanted to go to the new 
colony, since free passage, free tools, and free land were 
promised to all. 

58. The settlement of Savannah (1733). Oglethorpe 
selected thirty-five families and sailed for Charleston, 

where the people 
gave them a most 
hearty welcome. 
But the settlers 
hastened to the Sa- 
vannah, sailed up 
the river fourteen 
miles, and began 
the foundation, on 
a high bluff, of the 
beautiful city of 
Savannah. The 
streets were marked off with great regularity and in each 
quarter of the town a public square was provided. 

A great Indian chief and his warriors came to Oglethorpe 
and said: "Here is a little present," and held out a 
buffalo skin painted on one side with the head and feath- 
ers of an eagle. "The feathers of the eagle are soft and 




OGLETHORPE SURVEYING THE SITE OF SAVANNAH 



Georgia: A Real Spanish Barrier 



49 



signify love; the buffalo skin is warm and is the sign of 
protection. Therefore love and protect our little families. ' ' 




From a London print 
A VIEW OF THE TOWN OF SAVANNAH AS IT APPEARED ABOUT 1 74 1 

59. Other settlements. The law tolerating Protestant 
sects and giving equal rights to foreigners very soon 
bore fruits. A number of German Protestants came to 
Georgia and settled Ebenezer (1734). In the same year 
Augusta was planted 230 miles up the Savannah, as a 
trading post. At that time it was far out on the frontier. 
For a long time it was the chief seat of the fur trade 
for both Georgia and South CaroHna. This trade at 
Augusta reached the value of $250,000 annually (1741). 

The Jews came to the colony and found a home in 
Georgia when in most parts of the world they were cruelly 
persecuted. More Germans, called Moravians, came to 
join the fortunes of the colonists. Scotch Highlanders, 
too, came to add variety to the people of Georgia. They 
settled a town which they named New Inverness to 
remind them of Scotland. 



5© The Other Southern Colonies 

60. Three famous men in Georgia. John and Charles 
Wesley and the great orator, George Whitefield, had been 
students at Oxford University and were deeply religious. 
Charles Wesley came out as secretary to Oglethorpe. 
He became a writer of hymns that are still sung by 
the whole English-speaking world. John Wesley came 
as a preacher to the. colony, and longed to become a 
missionary to the Indians. He returned to England 
and founded Methodism there. Whitefield took up the 
work of John Wesley in Georgia. He founded a famous 
orphan asylum in Savannah and supported it mainly by 
his eloquence in preaching. He went back and forth to 
England several times. He traveled the whole length of 
the colonies from Florida to Maine, preaching to great 
crowds of people. Whitefield died in New England 
(1770). 

61. Georgia proves a barrier. Just as Georgia was an 
outpost for the Carolinas, so must Georgia have an out- 
post against the Spaniards. For this purpose Frederica 
was founded far down the coast on an island near the 
mouth of the Altamaha, not far from Florida (1736). 
The settlement was protected by a fort which was a 
challenge to the Spaniards. But Oglethorpe did not 
wait for the Spaniards to set upon him, but attacked 
their stronghold at St. Augustine. He could not take 
the town, so withdrew his little army and returned to 
Georgia. The Spaniards retaliated by attacking Frederica 
with a fleet and an army of 5,000 men. Although Ogle- 
thorpe had but 800 menj he attacked and defeated them. 
Once more he besieged St. Augustine. He could not 
capture it, but he taught the Spaniards a lesson. They 
never attacked Georgia again. Georgia, the last of the 
colonies, had her part in the Revolution. 



The Pilgrim Fathers 



SI 



MASSACHUSETTS: THE FIRST PURITAN COLONY 

THE PILGRIM FATHERS 

62. Before the Pilgrims came. All England was stir- 
ring (1606) when the Plymouth Company was given a 
charter for "North Virginia" (§27) and George Popham 
was sent out with a colony to the shores of the Kennebec. 
The winter froze them out. John Smith (§28) explored 
and mapped New England 
(1614). But the French must 
be kept in Canada by settle- 
ments in New England just 
as Raleigh was proposing to 
keep the Spaniards in Florida. 

63. The Separatists. The 
change from the Roman 
Catholic belief came very 
slowly in England. Some of 
the people wished to change 
quickly and fully. These were 
called Puritans, because they 
wished to ' ' purify ' ' the church 
of certain practices. Under 
Elizabeth and James I some of the Puritans felt compelled 
to leave the English Church and worship in private places. ^^ 
These people were called Separatists, and were punished 
by the king's officers throwing their leaders into jail. 

A little group of Separatists lived around Scrooby in 
Nottinghamshire, tilling the soil and watching their 
flocks. In 1608 they fled to Holland, a home for people 
persecuted for religion's sake. Although given a warm 
welcome, like all men they loved their native land the 
best and longed to be under its flag. 




A PURITAN MINISTER 



52 



Massachusetts: The First Puritan Colony 




THE MAYFLOWER ON ITS WAY TO AMERICA 



64. The voyage of the "Mayflower" (1620). The Pil- 
grims, as they now called themselves, decided to try their 
fortunes in America, where they hoped for the right to wor- 
ship God as they 
pleased. English 
merchants loaned 
the Pilgrims money 
and the king agreed 
not to trouble 
them. John Rob- 
inson, their noble 
pastor, with others 
of his little flock, 
bade them good- 
by. The Pilgrims 
sailed for England 
and took passage 

on the "Mayflower" for America. A terrible storm tried 
the bravest hearts, but they saw the shores of Cape Cod 
on November 9. On board, in the cabin of the 
"Mayflower," the Pilgrims drew up and signed an agree- 
ment called the Compact. They pledged loyalty to their 
king, and agreed to make only "just and equal laws 
. . . for the general good of the colony" (§27). 

65. A hard struggle. They chose Plymouth Harbor 
as their home. At their landing place lay a great bowlder, 
afterwards named "Plymouth Rock," which is still kept 
in memory of the Pilgrim Fathers. Their log cabins did 
not protect them well against snow and cold. They had 
been used to the gentler climate of England and Holland, 
and did not know how to make their houses warm, nor 
how to catch the wild animals for food and clothing. 
By spring half of the Pilgrims were in their graves and the 



Puritan Migration to Massachusetts Bay 



53 



rest were broken in health. But when the "Mayflower" 
went back to England not a man or woman returned. 
New emigrants from Holland made food scarcer, but 
Massasoit, a good Indian chief, soon gave them plenty 
to eat. The ability of Governor Bradford, and the 
courage of Miles Standish and his little army, kept the 
Indians from doing harm to the settlement. Within a 
few years the Pilgrims repaid the money they had bor- 
rowed from London merchants. Their courage and 
patience overcame the hardships of the wilderness. The 
second permanent English colony grew slowly but surely. 
The Pilgrims were very democratic and the most tolerant 
of New England colonists, except those of Rhode Island. 



PURITAN MIGRATION TO MASSACHUSETTS BAY 

66. John Winthrop leads the migration. The Puritans 
wanted to change the English 
Church but King James drove 
many of their ministers out 
of it. They decided to go to 
America, formed a company, 
and obtained a charter from 
the new king, Charles I (1629). 
They chose John Winthrop, 
governor. His name led many 
to go to America, where they 
might enjoy freedom of worship. 

Salem had already been 
settled, but when Winthrop 
decided to go to America and to 
take the charter with him, over 
700 joined him. They founded Boston (1630). In the 
ten years following more than 20,000 Puritans migrated. 




From a portrait painted by 
John Singleton Copley 

JOHN WINTHROP 



54 



Massachusetts: The First Puritan Colony 



They came as congregations led by their ministers, and 
settled in New England. The people lived in villages 
and went out to work on their little farms. Many interest- 
ing results grew out of settling in towns instead of on 
large plantations, as in the southern colonies. 

67. Religion and politics. When the Puritans reached 
Massachusetts they quietly put aside the authority of 
the English Church. If any one objected, he was sent 
back to England. Only Puritans were wanted in the 
colony. But it was not long before they began to dis- 
pute among themselves. The people of Watertown 
refused to pay a tax which they had had no voice in 
raising (163 1) (§37). Finally Winthrop and his council, 
or "assistants" as they were called, gave to each town 
the right to elect deputies to help in governing the colony. 

68. Disputes lead to founding colonies. Governor 
Winthrop, the conservative, said: "The best part [of 
the people] is always the least, and of that best part 
the wiser is always the lesser." A progressive minister, 

Thomas Hooker 
did not agree 
with Winthrop 's 
views. Hence 

. Hooker and his 
followers mi- 
grated to the 
rich valley of 



the Connecti- 
cut (1636) (§79). 
Roger Williams, a man df great ability, loved to debate 
and dispute. He declared that the people ought not to 
be punished for staying away from church and that no 
one had the right to give away the lands of the Indians. 




THE ROGER WILLIAMS CHURCH AT SALEM, 1681 



Dangers Threaten From the Outside 



55 



WK. 



V?V?H 



The people took sides ; Williams was tried, and banished 
to England. Instead of going, he made his way among the 
Indians and be 



came the founder 
of Rhode Island. 
Hardly was 
this excitement 
over before a 
greater dispute 
arose over 
Anne Hutchin- 
son, a woman 
who discussed 
deep religious 
questions. She 
drew great 
crowds in Bos- 
ton. Feeling 
ran high and 
threatened to 
interfere with 
raising troops 




1 uvm !C^ -'V-^M, 



for the PeqUOt the settlements along the new ENGLAND COAST 

War (§78). Anne Hutchinson, too, was banished. 

DANGERS THREATEN FROM THE OUTSIDE 

69. The king demands the charter (1635). The people 
sent back to England complained to the king that the 
Puritans were persecuting members of the English Church. 
To punish the Puritans the king at once demanded their 
charter (§66). He learned that the charter was in Amer- 
ica and sent for it; Massachusetts did not give it up, 
but instead built forts and ordered her men to practice 



56 



Massachusetts: The First Puritan Colony 



military drill. The king soon had war on his hands in 
England (§38), and the colonies were not troubled for 
a long time, for in the meantime Charles I was beheaded. '^ 
70. The New England Confederation. The dangers 
from the king, the claims of the Dutch to the Connecticut 
Valley, the presence of the French in the north, and the 
war with the Pequot Indians (§78) caused the four 

colonies of Massachusetts, 
Plymouth, Connecticut, 
and New Haven to form a 
loose union called the New 
England Confederation 
(1643). For more than 
forty years this union ex- 
isted, teaching the people 
the hard lesson of giving 
up for the common good. 
71. The coming of the 
Quakers. The Quakers 
opposed all ceremonies in 
religion, consequently 
England had her jails full 
of them. Fired by the 
wish to make converts, 
two Quaker women came 
to Boston (1656). They were sent back by the boat 
that brought them over. Others came. Massachusetts 
finally hanged four Quakers (1660). Mutterings of 
rebellion were now heard, and the judges debated two 
weeks about hanging another. Grim old John Endicott, 
disgusted with the delay, struck the table with his fist, 
scolded the judges, and declared he "was ready to go 
back to England." But no more Quakers were hanged. 




From a portiait painted l>y John Sinibort. 
Reproduced by permission of Massachu- 
setts Historical Society 

JOHN ENDICOTT 

John Endicott defended Roger Williams but 
persecuted the Quakers 



Dangers Threaten From the Outside 57 

It was a great victory. The plan of having only Puri- 
tans in Massachusetts was breaking down (§67). 

72. King Philip's War (1675). One of the saddest 
results of the settlement of America was the driving of 
the red man from his home and his hunting grounds. 
The Pequot War (1637) taught the New England Indians 
a lesson which they remembered until 1675, when King 
Philip, chief of the Wampanoags, made war. The New 
England Confederacy gathered its forces, and broke the 
power of the Indians after nearly two years of fighting. 
King Philip was killed. The colonies were learning to 
help one another. 

73. The king takes the charter (1684). While Crom- 
well, the great Puritan, ruled England the people of 
Massachusetts were safe. But Charles II (1660-1685) 
hated Puritans, for they had beheaded his father, and 
some of his judges were now hiding in New England. He 
ordered Massachusetts not to persecute members of the 
English Church and to give them the right to vote. Mass- 
achusetts protested. The king grew angry and took the 
charter away and Massachusetts became a royal province. 

74. The rise and fall of Governor Andros (1685-1689). 
James II, the new King of England, gave Massachusetts 
a new government. He made Sir Edmund Andros viceroy 
over New England, New York, and New Jersey. (Map, 
page 58.) Andros ruled like a tyrant: he abolished the 
lawmaking bodies, the town meetings, and the courts of 
justice. People were taxed without their consent, 
thrown into prison without trial, and browbeaten for 
raising objections. The public schools were neglected, 
but religious toleration was established. 

Suddenly news came that England was in revolution 
and had driven James from the throne (§47). This was the 



58 



Massachusetts: The First Puritan Colony 




spark that set Massachusetts on fire. Great excitement 
followed. The sheriff tried to stop it, but the people 

overpowered him. The 
boys of the town gathered 
with clubs in their hands, 
the drums beat the alarm, 
signal fires blazed on Bea- 
con Hill, and Andros fled 
to the fort. The former 
governor, Bradstreet, ap- 
peared on the streets, and 
the people gave a mighty 
shout. A thousand soldiers 
gathered near Boston and 
the next day hundreds 
of men from the country 
towns, headed by a school- 
master, came swarming in 
to fight. Andros surrendered, and New England was 
again free. 

75. The charter of William and Mary (1691). Andros 
out of the way, Massachusetts wanted its old charter. 
But WilHam and Mary sent them a very different one. 
This new charter added Maine and Plymouth to Massa- 
chusetts; the king appointed the governor, who might 
veto any law not to his liking; a man could vote without 
belonging to one of the churches in the colony; and all 
religious sects were to be tolerated. Many Puritans 
shook their heads over this charter, but it was far better 
than the rule of Andros. Although Massachusetts ac- 
cepted the new charter the people often quarreled with 
the king's governors, thus keeping alive, down to the 
Revolution, the spirit of opposition to royal authority. 



THE REGION RULED BY SIR 
EDMUND ANDROS 



Maine and Mew Hampshire 59 

THE OTHER NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 

MAINE AND NEW HAMPSHIRE 

76. Between the Merrimac and the Kennebec. Chief 
among the members of the old Plymouth Company (§62) 
were Ferdinando Gorges, a brave old soldier, and his good 
friend, John Mason. They belonged to the Church of 
England and hated the democratic ways of the Puritans. 
They were given a large tract of land between the Merri- 
mac and the Kennebec rivers. This region was divided 
(1629), Mason taking the western part and calling it 
New Hampshire. Portsmouth was the first colony 
planted (1630). But a little earlier in the year traders 
in fur and fish had settled at Dover. 

Followers of Mrs. Hutchinson fled to New Hampshire 
(§68) and settled the towns of Exeter and Hampton. 
As time went on Puritans came in faster than members 
of the English Church, and when Mason died the colony 
was added to Massachusetts. In the meantime Gorges 
was colonizing Maine, but the bold pioneers there did 
not take kindly to his aristocratic ways, and disorder 
broke out. Saco was the chief settlement. But progress 
was slow, and the colony was finally annexed to 
Massachusetts. Both colonies gradually grew in strength 
and were, in a way, looked upon as barriers against the 
French from Canada. 

CONNECTICUT AND NEW HAVEN 

77. Hooker and his followers settle the Connecticut 
Valley. The Dutch from New York (§87) and the 
Puritans of Massachusetts each occupied the beautiful 
valley of the Connecticut. The Dutch were compelled 
to leave when John Winthrop, Jr., built a fort at the 
mouth of the river (1635). In the very next year 



6o 



The Other Mew England Colonies 



Thomas Hooker (§68) led a great migration through 
the wilderness to the banks of the Connecticut River and 
soon founded three towns, Hartford, Wethersfield, and 
Windsor. 

78. The Pequot War (1637). Angered by so many 
white men in the midst of their hunting grounds, the 
powerful Pequot tribe began war. Roger Williams 
persuaded the Narragansetts not to join them, and 
Connecticut, aided by both Massachusetts and Plymouth, 
burned the Indians' fort in a night attack and killed large 
numbers of them. The war soon came to an end, and for 
almost forty years no tribe ventured on the warpath in 
New England. 

79. A Constitution made by the people (1639). The 
increase in settlers, as well as the earnest desire to have a 
strong government, led the liberal-minded Hooker to 




THE PILGRIMAGE TO THE CONNECTICUT VALLEY 

In the summer of 1636 Thomas Hooker led one hundred people into 

the valley and founded Hartford 

head a movement for a union of the three towns. He 
preached a sermon declaring that the right to rule is found 



Connecticut and New Haven 



6i 




THE CONNECTICUT AND NEW HAVEN COLONIES 



"in the free consent of the governed." The citizens of 
the three towns on the Connecticut met at Hartford 
and drew up a 
written consti- 
tution. This 
document pro- 
vided an equal 
number of rep- 
resentatives 
from each 
town, and the 
choice of a 
governor and 
council by the 

vote of all the free people. This union of towns, under 
the constitution, made up the Connecticut Colony. 

80. New Haven founded (1638). A number of London 
Puritans came to Boston led by Eaton, a rich merchant, 
and Davenport, an able minister. They were attracted 
to the northern shores of Long Island Sound. Davenport, 
standing under the friendly branches of an oak, preached 
a sermon and the settlers agreed that "all of them would 
be ordered by the rules which the Scriptures held forth to 
them." Thus was New Haven founded. 

The towns of Milford, Guilford, and Stamford were 
quickly formed. These towns, with New Haven, formed 
a union (1643) and were admitted to the Confedera- 
tion in the same year (§70). Each town was ruled by 
"seven pillars of the church," and all officers of the colony 
were ordered (1644) to obey the laws of God as they 
were handed down by Moses. The laws of the New 
Haven colony were so strict that they have been nick- 
named the "Blue Laws." 



62' The Other New England Colonies 

8i. The union of Connecticut and New Haven (1662). 

The popular government so happily begun by Connecticut 
was confinned to the settlers by Charles II in a very liberal 
charter. The people kept this charter as their constitu- 
tion until 18 18. But the king hated the people of New 
Haven for hiding two of the men who had put his father 
to death (§73) so he joined New Haven to Connecticut. 

82. The conflict with Andros (1687). The colony now 
became prosperous, but in an evil day Andros, the 
"Tyrant of New England," came to Hartford wearing a 
big wig, a scarlet coat, and guarded by a band of soldiers. 
He demanded their charter. The Assembly met to dis- 
cuss the question. A great crowd gathered. The debate 
lasted until evening. The charter was on the table. 
Their governor told the story of their hardships in seek- 
ing homes in the wilderness and pleaded with Andros to 
spare the charter. The lights were suddenly blown out. 
When they were lighted again the charter was gone. It 
was in a safe hiding place in the hollow of a great oak. 
Andros ruled Connecticut until Massachusetts rose in 
rebellion (§74). Then the charter was brought forth 
and Connecticut was once more free. The tree became 
the famous Charter Oak, and in the city of Hartford a 
memorial tablet marks the place where it once stood. 

RHODE ISLAND: DEMOCRATIC IN POLITICS AND RELIGION 

83. Roger Williams plants Providence (1636). Roger 
Williams preferred the wintry blasts of New England 
to going back to England (§68). "For fourteen weeks 
he was sorely tost in a bitter season, not knowing what 
bread or bed did mean." Sometimes he was without 
companions, and had no guides but the sun and stars. 
He often slept in the friendly trunk of a hollow tree. He 



Rhode Island: Democratic in Politics and Religion 63 



finally reached the kindly shelter 
of his good friend Massasoit. In 
June, 1636, with five companions, 
he laid the foundations of Provi- 
dence, as "a shelter for persons 
distressed in conscience." 

84. Union under one charter 
(1644). Roger Williams, touched 
by sympathy (§68), invited the ban- 
ished friends of Anne Hutchinson 
to settle on the island of Rhode 
Island. This marked the beginning 
of Portsmouth (1637). On account rhode island and the 




ATLANTIC 



. , , , PROVIDENCE PLANTATIONS 

of disputes among the leaders 

William Coddington led a party and began Newport. 

Roger Williams obtained a most liberal charter from 

Parliament, under which 
Providence, Portsmouth, 
Newport, and Warwick 
united to form the 
Providence Plantations. 
In 1662 Charles II con- 
firmed the charter of 
the colony, but added 
that no one should ever 
suffer ' 'for any difference 
in opinion in matters of 
religion." So well con- 
tent was Rhode Island 
with this charter she 
made few changes in her 
government until 1842 

ROGER WILLIAMS ON HIS JOURNEY / „ x 

THROUGH THE WILDERNESS V 8 3 3 4/ • 




64 New York 

NEW YORK 

THE DUTCH SETTLE NEW NETHERLAND 

85. Henry Hudson. Henry Hudson, an Englishman 
sailing for the Dutch East India Company, failed to find 
a northwest route to India. One day he turned his ship, 
the "Half-Moon," into the mouth of the river which 
now honors his name. He sailed as far as the site of 
Albany (1609) and then traded with the Indians. He 
noted the rich soil and beautiful scenery, and saw every- 
where the great forests filled with fur-bearing animals. 

86. Dutch fur traders. The great war with Spain" was 
over, and the Dutch were hungry for trade. They soon 
had trading vessels in New Netherland, as they called the 
land discovered by Hudson, had built four rude huts 
(16 1 3) on Manhattan Island, and had erected a fort near 
what is now Albany. (Map, page 65.) As tobacco played 
a great part in Virginia's prosperity (§32), so the fur 
trade became the foundation of New Netherland's wealth. 
This trade called for friendship with the Iroquois. The 

Indians wanted 
guns and powder 
and the Dutch were 
anxious for furs. 
They made a treaty 
which was kept for 
many years. The 
Dutch settlers had 
made a good begin- 
ning, but their 
rivals, the French, 
had made a bad one by attacking the Iroquois or Five Na- 
tions (§130). For more than 100 years these tribes stood 




indians welcoming the "half moon," 
hi'dson's ship 



The Dutch Settle New Netherland 



65 




NEW NETHERLAND AND THE "FIVE NATIONS" 



as a barrier between the French and the beautiful valleys 
of the Hudson and the Mohawk (§26). (Map, below.) 

87. The spread 
of Dutch settle- 
ments. Holland 
gave New Nether- 
land to the West 
India Company, 
who appointed a 
governor and coun- 
cil to rule the col- 
ony, but the people 
were given no 
rights. Besides 
New Amsterdam 
on Manhattan 
Island, Fort Orange, near Albany, was settled. On the 
Delaware opposite the present city of Philadelphia, on Long 
Island and in the Connecticut Valley (§77) other outposts 
were located. New Amsterdam outgrew all the others. 

To increase the number of settlers, the West India 
Company gave any member of the company a large tract 
of land and the grand title of "patroon," or patron, if 
he would send over fifty settlers. These colonists were 
to live on the land free of rent for ten years, but had no 
rights of voting or holding office. 

88. The Dutch people love liberty. At home the Dutch 
settlers had fought for freedom. They were greatly dis- 
satisfied with their governors because they gave them 
no rights. Their first governor was Peter Minuit, who 
bought Manhattan Island for less than a cent an acre; 
another was Kieft, who had burdened them with taxes 
to carry on a long Indian war (1641-1645). But the 



66 



New York 



greatest of all their governors was sturdy old Peter 
Stuyvesant, who began to rule in 1647. 

Peter Stuyvesant was an honest tyrant. He believed 
that he was capable of doing the thinking on political 
and religious subjects for the benefit of the people. 
The people did not agree with him and refused to let him 
have taxes unless he would appoint nine persons to advise 
him. The governor favored the Dutch Reformed Church 
and punished Baptists and Quakers. But the people 
finally forced him to treat people of other religious beliefs 
more kindly. 

89. The natural results of tyranny. New Amsterdam 
grew slowly. It contained about 800 inhabitants (1653) 
because it had been ruled for a trading company instead 

of for the people. When 
war broke out between 
Holland and England'^ 
(1664) New Amsterdam was 
in danger. Stuyvesant 
tried to stir the people to 
defend their town, but they 
had little interest in fighting 
for the Dutch West India 
Company. When the 
English fleet, carrying 120 
cannon, sailed into the bay, 
Stuyvesant stormed and 
raged, but the people did 
not move. "I had rather 
be carried to my grave," 
said the brave old governor to the minister who put 
a hand on his shoulder and told him it was wrong to 
shed blood in a hopeless cause. The colony was turned 




From a seventeenth century portrait in the 
New York Historical Society collection 

PETER STUYVESANT 

Peler Stuyvesant was a grim old tyrant 



The Dutch Settle New Netherland 



67 



over to the English. This was a happy stroke for England, 
for now, except the Indian, there was no enemy nearer 
than the French in Canada and the Spanish in Florida. 




THE DUTCH MOTHERS BEGGING STUYVESANT TO SURRENDER 

90. New York under the English (1664). New Neth- 
erland became New York, and Fort Orange became 
Albany, in honor of the Duke of York and Albany. ^^ 
The colony contained about 10,000 people. The English 
did not disturb them, but when the "Duke's Laws" were 
drawn up the people hailed them with delight. These 
laws gave (7) landholders the right to elect town officers, 
{2) trial by jury, and (j) freedom of worship. But they 
did not grant the colony a representative assembly. 

Andros (§74) was made governor. Finally he was 
succeeded by Thomas Dongan, who brought the cheering 
news that at last the people were to have an assembly. 
But the Duke of York had become James II, and as king 
he refused the assembly. 

Leisler, a German shopkeeper, led the people to rebel 
when they heard (1689) that James II was driven from 



68 The Other Middle Colonies 

his throne. English authority was against Leisler and 
he was finally hanged. 

William and Mary granted the colony of New York 
(1691) the longed-for representative assembly, and New 
York gradually became the center of royal influence in 
colonial times. '^ 

THE OTHER MIDDLE COLONIES 

DELAWARE 

91. New Sweden (1638). Stirred by the victories of 

her great general, Gustavus Adolphus,'"^ Sweden planted a 
colony on the banks of the Delaware where the city of 
Wilmington now stands. They named it Christina, in 
honor of their new queen. (Map, page ^69.) Peter 
Stuyvesant sent seven warships and forced the settle- 
ment to surrender. 

When New Netherland fell to the English, New Sweden 
became Delaware. Maryland tried to get it, but William 
Penn won the prize and it was joined to Pennsylvania 
until 1703, when Delaware was given an assembly, but 
kept the same governor as Pennsylvania. 

NEW JERSEY 

92. New Jersey (1664). The region between the Dela- 
ware and the Hudson was given by the Duke of York to 
two friends. Lord John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. 
Elizabethtown was founded by English immigrants 
(1665), but Newark by Puritans from New Haven who 
were dissatisfied by their union with Connecticut (§81). 
Other towns were settled, and a bit later representatives 
gathered at Elizabethtown to make' laws for the colony. 
Religious toleration, safety from the Indians, and a 
pleasant climate drew many settlers. 




Claims based on Discovery 
TixpLoration and Occupancy 

English ^B Suanishl 1 

french ^ZI\ Dutch » 
Swedish I I 



Lonffitude West from Greenwich 



Copyright, 190.^ by Rand. ai«;NaIly & Companj 



New Jersey 



69 



93. East and West Jersey. Lord Berkeley had trouble 
with the settlers and sold his share of New Jersey to 
Quakers seeking to escape English persecution (§71). 
William Penn was one of the owners. A line was now 
drawn separating the colony into East and West Jersey, 
the latter falling to the Quakers. ' * We put the power in the 
people," said the Quaker own- 
ers. At once four hundred 
Quakers left England for West 
Jersey, where they founded 
Burlington (1677). So suc- 
cessful was this West Jersey 
experiment that Quakers and 
Scotch Presbyterians joined 
hands and bought East Jersey 
from Carteret's heirs. A large 
number of Presbyterians came 
to East Jersey to enjoy reli- 
gious toleration. 

94. New Jersey becomes 
a royal province. When 
Andros became governor of 
New York (§74) he tried to 
lay claim to New Jersey for 
his master, the Duke of York, 
but William Penn's influence 
was too great and the duke failed. When the duke 
became king he seized New Jersey and placfed it under 
Andros ( § 90) . New Jersey bade her old rulers welcome 
when James 11 was driven from England. 

In 1702 the proprietors, tired of quarreling with the 
people over quit-rents, turned their rights to govern the 

colony over to the crown. 

4 







EAST AND WEST JERSEY AND THE 
SURROUNDING COLONIES 



70 



The Other Middle Colonies 



PENNSYLVANIA: A HOME FOR THE PERSECUTED 

95. The Quakers and their beliefs. In many colonies 
we have met the Quakers, but we are now to see them 

in their own home. The term Quaker 

was a sort of nickname, for they 
liked best the simple name of Friends. 
The cornerstone of their teachings 
was that truth is made known to 
every man by "a divine inner light" 
or an "inward voice," which is to 
them the voice of God in the soul. 
They believed that every man was 
his own priest and that paid ministers 
were not necessary. They taught that 
all men were equal in the sight of God, 
and hence no title nor rank should be 
given; no one should lift his hat even 
to the king or queen ; and that ' ' thee ' ' 
and "thou" and the person's given name should be used. 
They refused to take an oath in court, or to make war 
even in self-defense. They were a people of peace. ^^ 

96. William Peiin the greatest among Quakers. 
William Penn's father, an admiral in the English navy, 
was a favorite of Charles 11. Young Penn was fine look- 
ing, a good student at Oxford, an athlete, and a favorite. 
One day a Quaker preacher came to Oxford and William 
Penn became a member of the hated sect. He was ex- 
pelled from Oxford and driven from home. His family 
felt the disgrace keenly. Finally his father forgave 
him, but it was not long before he saw his old preacher 
again and became a Quaker forever. Neither the feel- 
ings of his family nor the dark, foul jails of England 
could shake his resolution to stand by the lowly Quakers 




A TYPICAL QUAKER 



Pennsylvania: A Home for the Persecuted 



71 



97. Penn gets Pennsylvania. We have already seen 
Quakers making experiments in West Jersey (§93). 
Penn resolved to plant a home of his own for them in 
the New World. Charles II was a spendthrift and could 
not pay back the $80,000 he owed to Penn's father. When 
the father died a large tract of land in America was taken 
by Penn in payment of the debt. It was the largest 
grant ever made to one man in America. This region 
the king named Pennsylvania, "Penn's Woods," in honor 
of Admiral Penn. 

98. The migration (1681). The news that "Penn in- 
tended to found a home for the persecuted spread rapidly. 
Penn even went to 
the continent to tell 
the people about his 
colony, and where he 
could not go he sent 
pamphlets telling of 
his plans. His char- 
ter was proof enough. 
He gave freedom of 
conscience, a govern- 
ment by the people, 
trial by jury even 
for Indians, and he 
further declared that 
criminals were to be 
reformed rather than 
punished and that 
only two crimes de- 
served death: mur- 
der and treason. Nothing since the days of Winthrop and 
the Puritans (§66) could compare with the migration of 




From a painting in the rooms of the 
Historical Society of Pennsylvania 

WILLIAM PENN 

Penn said "though good laws do well good men do better" 



72 



7'he Oihet Middle Colonies 




the Quakers to Pennsylvania. More than twenty ships, 
carrying 3,000 persons, sailed in one year, and with- 
in five years 
there were 
7,000 people in 
Pennsylvania. 
99. P e n n 
goes to Amer- 
ica (i 682). 
Penn with 100 
Quakers ar- 
rived in the 
good ship 
"Wei come." 
The settlers 

THE EARLY SETTLEMENTS IN PENNSYLVANIA, SHOWING gaVC him a 
THEIR RELATIONS TO THE NEIGHBORING COLONIES 

very hearty 
welcome. The men wore leather breeches, the women 
were clad in skin jackets and linsey petticoats. One 
settler gave Penn soil and water, showing that Penn owned 
both land and water; another gave turf and twig, proving 
he had authority over all things that grew on the land. 
Finally he received the keys of the fort at Chester, which 
meant that he could hold his possessions by force of arms. 
100. A great treaty (1682). William Penn treated all 
alike, the red man as well as the white. He ate with the 
Indians, joined in their pastimes, gave them presents, and 
won their friendship as no other white man had ever done. 
As long as the Quakefs controlled the colony no trouble 
ever came. Under the friendly branches of a giant elm 
Penn and the Indians exchanged gifts and thus bound 
each other by ties of kindness which were never broken so 
long as William Penn lived. 



Pennsylvania: A Home for the Persecuted 



n 



loi. The City of Brotherly Love (1683). In the great 
■forests on the banks of the Delaware Penn had marked 
out the streets of a city, Philadelphia. Thd trees found 
growing there gave name to some of the principal streets. 
Settlers came so quickly that some had to live in caves 
dug in the banks of the river until houses could be built. 
During the first year more than 100 houses were put up, 
and within the next two years over 2,000 people made 
their homes in this town in the woods. Philadelphia 
grew rapidly and soon led all colonial cities in size, though 
not so old as many of them. 

102. Mason and Dixon's line. The charters of Mary- 
land and Pennsylvania did not make clear the line be- 
tween these two colonies. Nearly a hundred years went 



■^<i- 







After the painting by Benjamin West, owned by the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arta 

PENN TREATING WITH THE INDIANS 
If an Indian loved a man he said: "He is like William Penn" 

by before the Penns and the Baltimores could agree, and 
then two mathematicians, Mason and Dixon, came over 
from London and surveyed it. "Mason and Dixon's 



74 Life in the Colonies 

line" has become famous in American history as forming 
a part of the boundary Hne between the Northern and the 
Southern states. The term was much used in later years, 
especially after slavery ceased to exist in the North but 
remained in the South. 

103. Pennsylvania's growth. Although this colony was 
very late in starting it outgrew them all. It was not 
long until only Virginia and Massachusetts had a larger 
population. People came from everywhere, from Ger- 
many, from Ireland, from Scotland, as well as from Eng- 
land. Among these was almost every kind of religious 
sect of that day. The beauty of it was that they lived 
happy and contented lives so far as differences in religion 
were concerned. One of the most famous men who 
lived in Philadelphia was Benjamin Franklin, who, as a 
young man, walked into that town one day with a loaf 
of bread under each arm, looking for work. 

LIFE IN THE COLONIES 

COLONIAL GOVERNMENT 

104. How the colonies were governed. After trying 
to govern the colonies in ways strange to them, England 
concluded that the English way of having a body of 
representatives was the best. All the colonies came to 
have a representative assembly very much like the lower 
House of our States. Most of them had a kind of upper 
House generally called a council, like our State Senate. 
The council's duty was to advise the governor and to 
help the representative assembly pass laws. In two 
colonies, Connecticut and Rhode Island, the governor 
was elected. In Maryland and Pennsylvania the pro- 
prietor named the governor, and in all other colonies he 
was appointed by the king and was the king's man. It 



Colonial Government 75 

was the quarreling between the governors and the people's 
representatives over raising taxes that kept alive the 
spirit of liberty. 

105. Comity and town government. Besides a govern- 
ment over the whole colony there were governments for 
the towns and the counties. The town was the center 
of government in the North, while the county played a 
like part in the government of the South. We have seen 
how New England was settled by planting towns (§66). 
These towns were governed by a body of "Select Men." 
It was in these towns that the people elected their repre- 
sentatives for the Assembly. In the South the people 
usually were scattered over wide areas. Therefore the 
people of the southern colonies were divided into counties 
with their own county officers. These counties elected 
the representatives for the House of Burgesses, as the 
Assembly was called in Virginia and Maryland. The 
sheriff was the great county officer in the southern colonies. 
In an early day he not only arrested people but held elec- 
tions when the people came together and voted. They 
did not vote by ballot as now, but by a show of hands 
after an old English custom. 

It is interesting to note that we have our States from 
our colonial governments. Our town and county govern- 
ments go back to colonial days. This shows how solidly 
and securely we have built our government out of past 
custom and habit. 

WHAT THE PEOPLE DID FOR A LIVING 

106. Farming the leading occupation. For long years 
after the colonies were settled the great majority of the 
people earned their living by tilling the soil. The soil 
of New England was poor but southward it grew richer. 



76 



Life in the Colonies 



The New Englander's summers were short and the farmer 
had to work hard for what he got. During the long 
winters he worked in his home or Httle shop making 
wooden chairs, tables, barrels, tubs, or bowls, or went 
hunting for game or for fur-bearing animals. For a long 
time the deer, the bear, the turkey, and smaller game 
furnished a large part of the meat for all colonial families. 
In lower New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, where 
the soil was richer, the farmer grew more prosperous and 
shipped wheat, flour, and cattle to Europe. 

107. Farming the great occupation of the South. From 
the beginning farming became the one great occupation 
of the southern colonies. Land was cheap and the farms 




CILTIVA riXC A CAROLINA RICE KIKI.D 
Rice was at one period the basis of Carolina's wealth 

were often large. These were called plantations. The 
demand for tobacco in Europe led Virginia and Maryland 



What the People Did for a Living 



77 



in an early day (§32) to raise a great deal of it. In the 
Carolinas, besides tobacco, there were large indigo and 
rice planta- 
tions (§54)- In 
addition the 
planter usually 
found that it 
paid him to 
raise corn and 
wheat for his 
own use and 
for the large 
number of 
laborers needed 
on the planta- 
tion. Where 
the plantation 
existed there 
was not much 
need of towns 
and little de- 
mand for other 
wavsof earniny loading the great ship at the planters' wharf 

a living than by farming. The plantation was a little 
world by itself, often making its own tools and the coarser 
clothes needed. Here were to be found a mill, a work- 
shop, and a loom, often managed by servants selected to 
do this work. 

108. When the great ship came to the planter's door. 
The southern planters, in an early day, settled on the 
banks of a bay or a river or on the shore of the ocean itself. 
This made travel easy from plantation to plantation or 
from colony to colony. Then, too, the great ship from 




78 Life in the Colonies 

London could land at the planter's own wharf. For weeks 
everybody talked of the coming of the ship with news 
from old friends, and of the fine clothes and furniture it 
was to bring from the old English home. 

How all "hands" worked to get the tobacco and other 
products the planter had raised ready for the vessel's 
coming! What stir and excitement as the ship came up 
the river with its sails spread to the breeze! What joy 
it brought to every one ! Good news from the old home, 
letters, presents, and perhaps some long-absent son, 
daughter, or friend! Then came the work and noise of 
unloading what the planter had bought and of loading 
what he had to sell. While all this bustle and noise were 
going on, the planter was busy entertaining the officers 
of the ship in true plantation style, settling accounts, and 
giving orders for the next year. 

109. What the forests furnished. The mighty forests, 
growing everywhere, furnished the people not only with 
wood to burn in their great fireplaces, but with logs and 
lumber for their houses and great trees for masts for their 
ships. The cutting down of the forest destroyed the 
Indians' hunting ground and led to many bitter wars. 
In the giant pine forests of North CaroHna many of the 
settlers found great quantities of pitch, tar, and turpen- 
tine, which they floated downstream in great barrels to 
the nearest port, put on board, and sent either to the 
other colonies or to far-away England. 

Besides, every colony engaged in the fur trade. The 
more hardy people went deep into the forests in pursuit 
of the fur-bearing animals. Sometimes the traders 
went among the Indians to buy their pack and some- 
times the Indians brought the season's load of fur 
down the river in a canoe to trade for trinkets, or for 



What the People Did for a Living 



79 



strong drink and maybe for guns and ammunition (§86). 
Governor Berkeley of Virginia got into trouble with his 
people because he refused to 
go to war against the Indians 
and thus destroy the profits 
.of his fur trade (§41). To 
the colony of Georgia the 
fur trade brought abundant 
profits (§59)- 

no. Other occupations. 
Shipbuilding was carried on 
in all the colonies, but most 
enthusiastically in New Eng- 
land, where Massachusetts 
led. Shipbuilding called for 
workmen of many kinds : men 
to go to the forests to cut the 
logs and bring them to the 
mill, men to run the sawmill, 
ship carpenters to build the ship, and rope and sail 
makers to fit the ship for trade. How differently are 
ships made to-day! 

Hundreds of solidly built ships sailed every year in 
search of the codfish, the mackerel, and the whale, while 
others carried rum, lumber, furs, fish, whale oil, tar, 
turpentine, tobacco, rice, and indigo to England. Some- 
times the ship owner sold his vessel and sometimes he 
ran down to Africa and loaded it with slaves which he 
carried to the colonies. It was the European trade that 
brought money into the colonies. No colony coined its 
own money. Massachusetts and South Carolina issued 
"paper money," which was only a "promise to pay" 
real money, when they got it. 




A FRENCH FUR TRADER WITH 
HIS PACK 



8o 



Lije in the Colonies 



SOCIAL LIFE IN THE COLONIES 

III. Social differences. Very few persons with titles 
came to America. But there were far greater differences 
socially then than now. The negro 
slaves fonned the lowest class. 
They could be bought and sold. As 
a rule the number of negroes de- 
creased from south to north on 
account of climatic conditions. The 
indentured servant and poor white 
laborer were next in rank. These 
people were generally ignorant and 
improved slowly unless they moved 
into the newer regions where less 
attention was paid to social differ- 
ences. In the third class stood the 
mechanics, shopkeepers, and small 
\ farmers. They struggled to improve 
by saving and by educating their 
children. They often tried to imi- 
tate the richer class in matters of dress. The highest social 
class was made up of the educated, such as ministers, 
teachers, lawyers, judges, and governors, as well as rich 
patroons and planters. In the older parts of the colonies 
parents were more strict than now in not permitting their 
children to marry below their social station. People were 
seated in church and in college, and names were arranged 
in catalogues, according to social standing. Among the 
rich at weddings and balls men powdered their hair, wore 
great wigs, velvet coats, knee breeches, silk stockings, and 
silver shoe buckles, and carried gold-headed canes and 
gold snuffboxes. The women on such occasions were 
dressed in silks, satins, and velvets direct from London, 




A COLONIAL GENTLEMAN 



Social Life in the Colonies 8i 

112. The governor's reception at Williamsburg. The 

greatest social event in any colony was the reception given 
to Virginia's governor. In no colony was Old World 
pomp and pride better kept up than in the "Old Domin- 
ion." The reception took place at Williamsburg, the 
capital town (§42), in honor of the governor and to cele- 
brate the meeting of the House of Burgesses. The 
families of the planters made great preparations months 
before. On the important day, in the great coach deco- 
rated with the family's coat of arms and drawn by fine 
horses, the planter and his family drove to the capital 
in the beautiful Virginia autumn. Before them rode 
negro servants dressed in uniform, and behind them came 
others, all proud to belong to such a master. What 
busy and noisy scenes as the planters and their trains 




THE GOVERNOR S RECEPTION IN COLONIAL DAYS, ONE OF THE GREAT 

EVENTS OF THE YEAR 

of servants came pouring in! How grand and stately 
the reception! The governor and his wife received 



82 



Life in the Colonies 



the officers of the colony, the burgesses and their wives, 
and other fine people, all dressed in their best. All 
bowed low to the governor and his wife, then backed stiffly 
away, for none might turn his back on the king's man. 



.-^. 















\^--"- 






From a photograph 
MANSION OF A PATROON, ON THE FAMOUS VAN RENSSELAER ESTATE 

113. The patroon and his renters. Interesting events 
took place on the patroon 's great estate (§87). His place 
was large, like a southern plantation. His house was 
large, like the great planter's, and the furniture was grand 
in style. The gardens and orchards sometimes ran down 
to the Hudson. Near by stood the great barns. In them 
the patroon kept his grain and gave his horses and cattle 
comfortable quarters. Near the great house were smaller 
buildings, the homes' of the white and black servants, 
for the patroons had slaves in that day. 

Rent day was always a holiday on the great estate. 
Then all the little farmers came with their families in 
wagons or on horseback, with rent money in their pockets. 



Social Life in the Colonies 



83 



A great feast was prepared. Oxen, sheep, and pigs were 
roasted. Dozens of servants ran to and fro waiting upon 
the people who ate, drank, and made merry. Then 
everybody declared the patroon was a kind-hearted man. 
But when they went home to begin hard labor again 
they wished the farms were their own and that they did 
not have to pay rent money. 

114. Southern and Northern settlers* homes. The 
first houses of the settlers were made of round logs, 
notched so that the ends would fit into each other. A 
little later the sides of the logs were flattened by being 
hewn. The spaces between the logs were filled or chinked 
with mud to keep out the rain and cold. The roofs were 
made of a rude sort of clapboard split out of logs by the 
settlers. A chimney, placed at the end of the cabin, on 
the outside, was made of sticks and mud. These log 







A CAROLINA COLONIAL MANSION 
Simplicity and comfort in architecture were brought from England by the settlers 

huts had only rough doors and windows to shut out the 
storm, and frequently had no floors except the bare earth. 



84 



Life in the Colonies 



Men living on the wooded frontiers have always built 

such houses, and here and there in the older states 

they may yet be found with certain improvements. 

From 1700 on, colonial houses grew larger and finer, 




^ TW 

A TYPICAL NEW ENGLAND HOME 



From a photograph 



especially in the cities and on the estates of the patroons 
and planters. These houses in the South were open, 
with great halls, plenty of windows, and large verandas 
to make the people comfortable in the summer time. 
In the North the houses were more closely built to guard 
against the cold of winter. 

In every colonial home, rich or poor, north or south, 
was the great fireplace. In the smaller homes it took up 
a large part of one end of the house. If the family had 
a kitchen, it, too, had a fireplace where cooking was done, 
for there were no stoves or gas ranges in colonial times. 

115. The kitchen and its furniture. Before a great 
fire over a bed of red-hot coals the pioneer's wife baked 
the bread in a skillet or in a great ' ' Dutch ' ' oven or on a 
board set up on edge to catch the heat from the fire. On 



Social Life in the Colonies 



85 



a crane fastened in the chimney was hung the pot or 
kettle for boiHng vegetables or meat. In the humbler 
homes the family gathered around the table on stools or 
on rude chairs, and ate from off wooden plates with 
wooden spoons. In the better homes the tables were 
furnished with pewter dishes, knives and forks, and 
even with articles of silver, and the kitchen itself boasted 
tables and chairs imported from the old English home. 

116. Pastimes north and south. In New England and 
in the middle colonies indoor pleasures in winter were 
held before the great fireplace. Here neighbors gathered 
to spend the long winter evenings in social chat, dancing , 
story-telling, and nut-cracking, or to take part in some 
kind of ' ' bee. ' ' In the daytime spinning, sewing, and quilt- 
ing afforded pleasant pastimes for mothers and daughters. 

With the exception of the cold winter evenings and 
the sports of _ , ^ ,- ^ . 

sleighing and ( 1) 

skating, the 
people of the 
South had the 
same sports as 
those of the 
North. Some 
pastimes may 
be said to be 
southern be- 
cause indulged in more frequently in the South than in 
the North. Dancing was popular. The ladies and 
gentlemen of that day, old as well as young, delighted to 
follow the stately movements of the "Virginia reel" and 
the "square" and the "round" dances. Fox-hunting was 
an outdoor sport dearly loved in the South. In the early 




FOX-HUNTING IN VIRGINIA 



86 Lije in the Colonies 

morning, as the last stars were fading from the eastern 
sky, men and women gathered on horseback from distant 
plantations to the musical sounds of the conch shell or 
horn. A gay company went at breakneck speed when 
the hounds were hot on the trail. Horseback riding 
was indeed a favorite colonial sport in the South. Partly 
from necessity, every man, woman, and child in a pros- 
perous planter's family had his own saddle horse. Now 
the carriage and the automobile are sought after. 

117. Southern hospitality. Situated on a large planta- 
tion containing thousands of acres, the southern planter 
was hungry for the company of other people. Often he 
set a servant to watch the great road for travelers and to 
bid them stop and enjoy themselves for a time. A month 
was not too long for such visits. The planter kept open 
house and treated his guests in a hearty way. The best 
was none too good for them; the best food on bountiful 
tables, and the best bed the house afforded were theirs. 
Southern hospitality became famous. 

It was well that it was so, for the inns or taverns were 
few and far between. Besides, they were not always well 
kept, and even in the best many things were lacking to 
make a traveler comfortable. 

118. Training days and shooting matches. The gun 
was the companion of the settler. It not only furnished 
him food and clothing but gave him safety from the wild 
animals and the Indians. In early days he went armed 
to work in the fields, on journeys, and to church. 

The result was .that -the settler became a natural sol- 
dier. But for still further improvement ' ' training days ' ' 
were held in the colonies. The men gathered at some 
place to be trained by a veteran officer — to form in 
line, march, load, and fire at the word of command. 



Schools, Books, and Newspapers 



87 



Training day was a holiday; whole families went to 
see the militia drill like real soldiers and to visit with old 
friends. After drill, the men took part in running, jump- 
ing, wrestling, boxing, and other athletic games. But 
they did not forget the rifle, for the pioneer was proud 
of his ability to shoot. Matches were arranged, judges 
chosen, the distances marked off, and a target set up. 
The one who hit the mark most often was declared the 
champion shot. This was indeed a proud honor. 



SCHOOLS, BOOKS, AND NEWSPAPERS 

119. Southern and northern schools. The first colo- 
nists — men, women, and children — had so much work 
to do that very little time was left for going to 
school. Then, too, 
there were few books, 
even after the printing 
press came. After the 
church and the block 
house, next in order 
the school house had 
to be built, especially 
in the North. 

If there were no towns, as was sometimes the case in 
the southern colonies, or if the town was too small, the 
faithful minister often took on the duties of the school 
teacher. In the large towns in all the colonies there were 
good schools. 

Although Governor Berkeley thanked God that there 
were no free schools in Virginia, yet Virginia boys had 
several schools, supported by gifts of money or lands. 
In Maryland, the Carolinas, and Georgia there were 
schools where the people lived close enough together. 




AN EARLY SCHOOLHOUSE IN THE SOUTH 



88 



Life in the Colonies 



But in these colonies the people living on large plantations 
were widely scattered as a rule. Hence this condition 
made public schools scarcer than in the colonies where 
people lived closer together. The children were often 
taught by private tutors. 

120. Colonial colleges. Harvard (1636) was for a long 
time the only college in the colonies. Then came the 
College of William and Mary in Virginia (1693). Part 
of the money for this college came from the colonists, 
but the king and queen for whom it was named gave the 
charter. After 1700, colleges were established in almost 
every colony before the Revolution. In an early day, 
before the first mutterings of the Revolution were heard, 
it was fashionable for the sons of the great planters to 
seek both society and education in the old English home.'^" 




H.\RVARD COLLEGE IN THE EARLY DAYS 

121. Libraries. Books and newspapers are the teachers 
of older people. The one book found in colonial homes 



Schools, Books, and Newspapers 



89 



was the Bible. Books were very scarce in America. 
Now hundreds of towns and cities have libraries, but 




the largest cities in colonial days often had no public 
library. Charleston had the largest library of any 
southern town. But in Maryland and Virginia several 
libraries belonged to the planters. One Virginia planter, 
Colonel Byrd, had one of more than 3,000 volumes. 

The first printing in America was done in Boston (1639) 
and there, too, the first newspaper, the Boston News- 
Letter, appeared in 1704. Others soon sprang up in 
New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Charleston. 
Before the American Revolution each colony had one or 
more printing presses. But how slow it all seems to us! 
There was no telegraph or telephone, and no reporters 
to collect the news. The editor gathered his news, set 
his type, worked the printing press, and sometimes 



90 



Life in the Colonies 






'i' !>-^. 









carried the papers to his patrons. When the first daily 
paper, the Pennsylvania Packet, appeared, the colonists 
must have thought they were making rapid progress. 

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND CUSTOMS 

122. Many sects bring toleration. When America was 
discovered each nation of the Old World usually had 

one religion, just 
as it had one 
government. If 
a new way of 
worship arose, its 
followers were 
punished. Hol- 
land stood first 
for toleration. 
Many sects, pun- 
ished at home, fled 
to America. Gov- 
ernor Endicott 
wanted only Puritans in Massachusetts (§71) and tried 
to banish Episcopalians. Peter Stuyvesant in New 
Netherland held to the Dutch Church, and persecuted 
Quakers (§88). Governor Berkeley thought only Episco- 
palians should live in Virginia (§40) and drove Puritans 
and Baptists to other colonies. The governors in the 
Carolinas tried, for a time, to establish the English 
Church, but the people of these colonies finally won the 
right to enjoy religious toleration. Rhode Island and 
Maryland early set the example of religious toleration, 
while later colonies such as Pennsylvania and Georgia 
either allowed religious freedom or treated religious sects 
kindly. The other colonies learned it was wisest not to 




GOOSE CREEK CHURCH, SOUTH CAROLINA 

A church still standing from colonial days 



Religious Beliefs and Customs 



91 



quarrel over religious questions. Toleration turned out 
well for America, for it not only prevented a state church, 
supported by taxation, but induced people of all beliefs 
to find a welcome in this country. No wonder they 
were willing to fight for America when the time came! 

123. The colonial ways stricter than now. The colo- 
nists were very much in earnest in regard to religion. 
At some time, in nearly all colonies, the people were 
compelled by law to go to church. They looked up to 
and respected the minister. They asked his advice in 
important family matters as well as in public affairs. 

In all the colonies the Sabbath was kept far more 
strictly than now. Work was laid aside in the homes 
and none was done outside. In some colonies it ran 
from sundown Saturday until sundown Sunday. Church 
buildings were very plain, and in the North in the 




PURITANS GOING TO CHURCH 



winter very uncomfortable. Going to church in the 
South was far more pleasant and was looked upon as 
an opportunity to meet friends and neighbors. 



92 Life in the Colonies 

124. Punishments more severe then than now. In 

our day treason and murder are the only crimes for 
which men are put to death by law. In colonial times 
many offenses were punished with death. The colonies 
punished men in public, but we, as a rule, punish in secret. 
We lock people in jails and in prisons, they put them in 
public places where all could see them. In many towns 
and counties the gallows, on which men were hanged, stood 
in open view. The pillory, the stocks, and the ducking 
stool were also in plain sight. Men were often seen with 
scars on their hands and faces made by a hot iron which 
burned the first letter of their crime. But more often a 
curious crowd could be seen pointing at a shamefaced 
man with a large letter or word hanging round his neck. 
This was a hard way to make people behave themselves. 

125. Witchcraft. A little more than 200 years ago 
people everywhere believed in witches. They thought 
that very ugly or deformed persons became the com- 
panions of evil spirits and with their aid did harm to 
others. Persons supposed to have such power were called 
witches, and could be put to death by the laws of all the 
nations, including most of the colonies. 

A witchcraft, craze broke out in the town of Salem, Mas- 
sachusetts in 1692. Some young persons acted strangely 
and pointed to others as having "bewitched" them. In 
the excitement the craze spread, and large numbers were 
thrown into jail. Nineteen persons were hanged. The 
people of Salem saw that they would all be in jail if the 
excitement kept on, , and that many innocent would 
suffer. So they stopped the craze. One hundred years 
afterwards witches were tried and executed in Europe, 
and even now there are a few people in America who 
are ignorant enough to believe in witches. 



Spain's American Empire 93 

126. Smugglers and pirates. England had tried by 
the Navigation Laws to keep other nations from trading 
with America, ( § 40) . Sometimes when the custom house 
officers were not near, the people of the colonies brought 
goods in without paying the tax. This was illegal, and 
the ships and sailors were called smugglers. The English 
merchants had long been engaged in smuggling. 

Smugglers sometimes turned pirates and robbed and 
murdered. Pirate ships were armed like "men-of-war." 
They preyed upon merchant ships, took their money and 
parts of the cargo, destroyed the ship, and murdered the 
sailors. They even came into New York and Phila- 
delphia. Captain Kidd was sent to search for them but 
turned pirate himself and became the ' ' terror of the sea. ' ' 
He came back and was caught and sent to London to 
be hanged. 

The coast of the Carolinas was a favorite nest of 
pirates. The most famous of the gang was Blackbeard. 
He was a terror for the honest merchant ship wherever 
he found her. Finally he was overtaken and after a 
hand-to-hand battle was killed and his head cut off and 
triumphantly tied to the bowsprit of the victorious 
vessel, as she sailed back to port. The pirates were 
finally driven away but long haunted the West Indies. 

THE CONFLICT OVER NORTH AMERICA 

SPAIN'S AMERICAN EMPIRE 

127. The greatness and weakness of the empire. 

While the English colonies were steadily growing, Spain 
still held her great possessions farther south. Like a 
huge horseshoe they stretched from Florida through the 
West Indies to South America, most of which she claimed. 
Turning northward they included Central America and 



94 



The Conflict over North America 



the rich province of Mexico. This was a splendid empire. 

But itwas destined to pass from her hands piece by piece 

because it was managed for the 
good of a few in Spain and not 
for the benefit of its own people. 
Here were no colonial assemblies, 
no self-government. The King of 
Spain and his agents ruled it as 
they saw fit; and its wealth was 
taken to Spain. 

128. Treasure ships and plun- 
derers. Once a year their ships 
brought home vast stores of gold 
and silver and other valuable 
products. They sailed in a single 
group, carefully guarded by 
Spanish warships. It was enough 

After the statue by Don Fiancisco Jimenes tO tCmpt DOlCl men Ol OtnCr 

nations. Great sea captains, like 
Drake and Hawkins, often fell 
upon the treasure ships and plundered them. Later 
came reckless adventurers from everywhere and took 
what they could on land and sea from the traders and 
merchants. These were called Buccaneers. 

129. Other nations gain a foothold. Spain tried to keep 
other nations out of all this region. But as her power 
weakened they got one place after another. Thus Eng- 
land got the Barbadoes and Jamaica; the Dutch, Curagao; 
the French, Martinique and other islands. It was the 
beginning of the breaking up of the Spanish Empire in 
America. If Spain could not hold her own in the South, 
she certainly would not be a dangerous rival of England 
in the North. That great rival was to be France. 




GUATEMOTZIN 

The nephew of Montezuma and the 

last Indian emperor of Mexico 



The Rise of French Power 



95 




THE RISE OF FRENCH POWER 

130. A decisive Indian 
battle (1609). We have 
already seen (§15) h o w 
Champlain laid the found- 
ation of New France at 
Quebec (1608). In the 
following year, when the 
' ' Half- Moon ' ' was sailing 
up the Hudson (§85), 
Champlain took a leading 
part in one of the most im- 
portant Indian battles ever 

fought. He lOined the From the portrait painting in Independence 

° " -^ Hall, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 

Indians of Canada when samuel champlain, the father of 

. new FRANCE 

they planned to invade the 

land of the Iroquois in the colony of New Netherland. 

On the shores of Lake Champlain the Five Nations 

met their northern foes. Suddenly the ranks of the 

Canadian Indians opened and Champlain, clad in steel 

and armed with a weapon never before 

seen by the Iroquois, stepped forth. He 

fired, and two chiefs fell . Other shots 

followed, and 
"the boldest 
^— and fiercest 
warriors in 
North Amer- 
ica" ran yelling 
into the woods. 
The result was 
that from this 
day forward 




THE SITE OF QUEBEC 

Here, in 1808, on a narrow belt of land at the fool of the high 
bluff, Champlain laid out the city of Quebec 



96 



The Conflict Over North America 




aX 




K • 1' = '^ -,N ""-■■■■ V; " JS^--!^''''^" '"'^'^'^r C ChaxipUin-s Route, 




Marquette and Joliet's 
Route, it>7J ,.,_,_,_,_,., 

LaSalle'i Route to Ft. 
Crevccoeur and return, 
;6;9-i-i-i— I— I— I— I— I— I— I 

LaSalle s Route from 
Ft. St. Louis to the Gulf, 

ibS^ -___ 



FRENCH EXPLORATIONS AND POSTS 



the Iroquois became the deadly enemies of 
the French, and for more than a hundred 
years kept them from moving down into the 
fertile valleys of New York. 

131. The Frenchman makes friends with 
the Indian. This attack on the Iroquois was 
an exception, for the Frenchman, as priest 
in establishing his mission or as fur trader in 
building his post, usually made fast friends with the 
Indians. The French traders lived on more friendly 
terms with them than did the English and often married 
the dusky maidens of the forest. The French trader and 
the Indian went on long trips together, hunting for game 
and fur. As boon companions they paddled up and down 
rivers and lakes, shared wigwanis and camp fires, and 
joined in outdoor sports and pastimes. The English 
would do none of thCvSe things. 

132. Marquette and Joliet explore the Mississippi 
(1673). The French had heard of the "Father of Waters " 
as they pushed westward. The governor of Canada sent 
Marquette the missionary, and Joliet the fur trader, to 



The Rise of French Power 



97 



find the river. They paddled slowly in birch-bark canoes 
from the Straits of Mackinaw into Green Bay and up the 
Fox River. The Indians carried their canoes over the 
portage to the banks of the beautiful Wisconsin. Down 
this stream and out upon the broad bosom of the Mis- 
sissippi they floated. Carried by its mighty current, 
they drifted past the place where the future St. Louis 
was to stand and on past the mouth of the Ohio until 
they reached the Arkansas. Because of rumors of hostile 
Indians and of danger from Spanish capture, they began 
their toilsome journey home. They 
entered the Illinois River and finally 
reached the Great Lakes and the place 
where Chicago now stands. 

133. La Salle and Hennepin, fur 
trader and missionary. La Salle went 
to occupy the Mississippi Valley for the 
French (1679). He returned east for 
supplies, while Father Hennepin floated 
down the Illinois to the Mississippi 
and went up that stream to the Falls of 
St. Anthony. La Salle finally reached 
the mouth of the great river and took 
possession in the name of his king, giv- 
ing the region the title of Louisiana in 
honor of King Louis (1682). How 
rich and splendid a region for a new 
French empire ! The enthusiasm of the 
French was aroused, and the king sent out an expedition 
of four ships under La Salle to settle at the mouth of 
the Mississippi (1684). But he missed the mouth and 
landed on the coast of Texas. La Salle was murdered 
and only a few of his followers escaped to tell the tale. 




MARQUETTE 

A typical French 
missionary 



9 8 The Conflict Over North America 

134. Louisiana settled. But France did not let La 
Salle's great plans die with him. From the Gulf of 




After an old print 
NEW ORLEANS IN 1719 

Mexico to the Great Lakes and from the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence through the Great Lakes, France controlled 
the great waterways of North America. In 1699 Biloxi 
was established as a trading post in the southern part of 
what is now the state of Mississippi. Mobile was settled 
in 1702 and for a time was the head of the colony. In 
1 7 18 New Orleans was founded and the seat of govern- 
ment removed there. 

135. Purpose and plans of the French. The French 
had been active in pressing from Canada westward 
and establishing themselves over a vast region. By 1700 
they had planted a large number of forts (Map, page 96) 
to protect their missionaries and fur traders when the 
time should come to form the basis of a New France in 
America. Would that time ever come? It seemed near 
at hand. 

THE BEGINNING OF THE STRUGGLE 

136. Causes of the conflict. The English and French 
had now to contend for the possession of North America. 
The ownership of soil would give room for colonies and 



The Beginning of the Struggle 



99 



would control the vast trade in furs and the very useful 
trade in fish. The fur traders of France and England 
were clashing at certain points. There were religious 
differences too. Back of all these things was the fact 
that England and France had become great rivals where- 
ever they met.^^ 

137. The wars of William and Anne (1689-1713). 
When the English people drove their own king, James II, 
from the throne, France at once took his part and a war 
that was to last almost twenty-five years began. Peace 
was made for a short time, but under Anne, the successor 
of William, the bitter struggle went on. 

In this war the Indians, except the Iroquois or Five 
Nations, all took the French side. The French planned 
the invasion of New York, but the Iroquois were too 
quick for them. Instead, of invading the city the French 




INDIANS ON THEIR WAY BACK TO CANADA WITH THEIR PRISONERS 

and Indians attacked, on the northern frontier, where 
they burned the homes, and massacred the people. 



loo The Conflict Over North America 

138. New England and New York cooperate (1690). 

The leaders in New York and New England planned a 
land force against Montreal but it got no farther than 
Lake Champlain. Sir William Phips, who had already- 
captured Port Royal in Acadia, commanded the fleet that 
set out for Quebec. But cold weather forced the English 
to abandon the siege. 

139. War in the South. Spain joined France against 
the English in Queen Anne's War. The Spaniards had 
always resented the settlement of Charleston (§52). In 
1702 the vSpaniards of Florida planned to send a large 
body of Indians to attack the town, but before they 
could get under way the people of Charleston sent 
another body of Indians and defeated the Spaniards. 
The Carolinians then burned St. Augustine but did not 
capture the Spanish fort. In 1703 they raided the 
Spanish plantations in Florida. To put a check to the ' 
ambitious Carolinians a combined French and Spanish 
fleet, carrying a strong landing party, left Havana (1706) 
to attack Charleston. They found the brave Governor 
Johnson and his little colonial army ready. The Caro- 
linians defeated the attempt to make a landing and a 
Carolina fleet beat off the attacking ships. The enemy 
departed. This was indeed a glorious victory for the 
people of Charleston, and had the English government 
given them aid they would in all probability have 
destroyed Spanish power in Florida. 

140. Treaty of peace (1713). When the treaty of 
peace came, France , was compelled to give up all of 
Acadia, Newfoundland, and the Hudson Bay region as 
well, and Spain surrendered her monopoly of the slave 
trade to England. This peace was unbroken for thirty 
years. 



The Beginning of the Struggle 



lOI 



141. King George's War (1744-1748). The kings of 
England at this time were not really Englishmen^^ and did 
not understand English ways very well. They took the 
advice of a great man, Sir Robert Walpole, who stood 
for peace. This gave the colonies rest for thirty years. 
They had their eye however on the Frenchmen who were 




THE CAPTURE OF LOUISBURG 

Loiiisburg fortress, which stood on the Island of Cape Breton, was the key to the 

St. Lawrence and was called the "Gibraltar of America" 



pushing east from the Mississippi and south from the 
Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence. 

When war did come, New England sent an expedition 
of 100 vessels, carrying 4,000 soldiers, to take Louisburg. 
This fortress stood on Cape Breton Island and was the 
key to the St. Lawrence. Louisburg had been built of 
heavy stone at a cost of millions of dollars. It was called 
the "Gibraltar of America." The French thought it 
could not be taken, but after a siege of six weeks it fell 
(1745), and caused great rejoicing throughout the English 
colonies and Great Britain. Great was the disappointment 
when the treaty of peace handed it back to France (1748). 
5 



I02 The Conflict Over North America 

THE LAST CONFLICT 

142. The colonial Englishmen and the Frenchmen. 

The name of the last conflict in America is the "French 
and Indian War," but in Europe it became a part of the 
"Seven Years' War." In this country the English and 
French had been approaching each other. In all New 
France there were not more than 80,000 Frenchmen, 
but they were under the control of one man, the governor 
of Canada. The English all told counted more than 
1,100,000, but they were under the control of thirteen 
different governors ; they had no one man to govern them, 
except the English king, who was 3,000 miles away. 
The English had the aid of the Iroquois, Cherokees, and 
Creeks; the French had the Indians of Canada and 
some of the southern tribes. The English were concen- 
trated east of the Appalachians, while the French were 
scattered from the Gulf of Mexico to the St Lawrence. 

143. Causes of the war between the French and 
English. The hatred and rivalry between the French 
and English fur traders constantly grew, so that this 
conflict really began in America. The French were now 
pushing from Lake Chautauqua down the Allegheny to 
the Ohio and had buried leaden plates to prove their 
right to this region. In Virginia, the Carolinas, and 
Georgia great excitement was caused when the people 
got the news that the French had made trade treaties 
with the Cherokees and the Creeks. 

A great trading organization of Virginia planters, called 
the Ohio Company, received from the king of England 
a grant of 500,000 acres near the headwaters of the 
Ohio. They had built a road into this region when word 
came that the French were already moving into the 
Ohio Valley. 




North America 
in 1750 

The conflicting Spanish, French 

and English claims 

English I I Spanish I I 

Frenches FrJi'.'i"s1.i^ CD 

Unexplored I \ 

Scale of Miles 



200 400 600 600 1C0( 



Longitude Weat from Greenwich 



Coprright, 1903, by Rand. UcMallf IfCompAor 



The Last Conflict 



103 



144. Young Washington sent to the French (1753). 
George Washington, whose brothers were members of 
the Ohio Company, was born in Westmoreland County, 
Virginia (1732). He was a promising lad. A leader 
among his fellows in school and devoted to his widowed 
mother, he grew up a manly fellow. At sixteen he was 







GREENWAY COURT, THE HOME OF LORD FAIRFAX IN THE 
SHENANDOAH VALLEY 

Surmounting the broad, sweeping roof, pierced by dormer window's, were two belfries, doubtless 
designed for bells to call the settlers together when an Indian uprising was feared 

sent with five companions across the mountains into the 
Shenandoah to survey the lands of Lord Fairfax, a neigh- 
bor. Altogether young Washington spent three years 
in this region of forests, rivers, mountains, and Indians. 
He learned the art of living in the woods. He took great 
risks and faced many dangers in this wild life in the 
Shenandoah. 

No young man twenty-one years of age was better 
fitted than George Washington to carry to the French, 
Governor Dinwiddle's orders to get out of the Ohio 



I04 The Conflict Over North America 

Valley. The task was a dangerous one. There were 
few guides and the country was full of Indians and French 
who liked nothing better than to scalp or capture an 
Englishman. Washington delivered his message, took 
note of what the French were doing, and hastened back 
with the French refusal. 

145. Skirmishing. Dinwiddle quickly sent men to 
build a fort at the forks of the Ohio, but the French cap- 
tured it before it was finished (1754). They named it 
after their governor, Duquesne. (Map, page 105.) Wash- 
ington was already moving into the region with Virginia 
volunteers. He surprised a body of French sent to 
attack him. Getting word of a larger body of the enemy, 
he built Fort Necessity, which the French attacked, and 
Washington, hopelessly outnumbered, surrendered. He 
marched out with the honors of war. 

146. The Iroquois at Albany. Representatives from 
New England, the middle colonies, Maryland, and Vir- 
ginia met the chiefs of the Iroquois at Albany. The 
Iroquois (§130) came in slowly, for they too saw the 
meaning of the great war cloud. One of their chiefs 
said: "Look at the French. They are men; they are 
fortifying everywhere. But, we are ashamed to say it, 
you are like women." The English gave the Indians 
more and costlier presents than ever, and they pledged 
everlasting friendship. 

147. The proposed Albany plan of union (1754). For 
a number of years leading men had felt the need of 
union among the col6nies for protection. Benjamin 
Franklin, who came to meet the Indians at Albany, had 
been thinking of a plan. He was already famous on 
both sides of the ocean. He was born in Boston (1706), 
went to Philadelphia and hired to a printer, worked 



The Last Conflict 



105 



hard, saved his money, and made several inventions. 
He discovered that Hghtning and electricity are the 
same. He had been to London and thus gained a wider 
outlook. The English government had already made 
him assistant postmas- 
ter-general in America. 

He presented to the 
Albany meeting his 
plan of union. This 
scheme gave the king 
a right to name a gov- 
ernor over all the col- 
onies; to the colonial 
legislatures it gave the 
right to name men to 
compose a council over 
the colonies. This 
body was to treat with 
the Indians, build 
forts, raise troops, and 
levy taxes to pay for 
these things. Both the 
king and the colonies 
rejected the plan. 

148. Great plans 
and great failures. 
General Braddock 
came with regulars from England and brought a pocket- 
ful of campaign plans. He called the governors to meet 
him in Washington's old town of Alexandria. They 
agreed to attack four places at once: Fort Duquesne, 
Niagara, Crown Point, and Acadia. 

General Braddock, brave but overbearing, marched 




FORT DUQUESNE AND ITS APPSOACHES 

Showing Braddock's line of march, and the line of 
French forts 



io6 



The Conflict Over North America 



against the fort on the Ohio. He had never made a 
campaign through the woods of America. He refused 
to listen to the advice of Franklin and Washington, 
who knew the Indian way of fighting. Eight miles 
from Fort Duquesne, Braddock was surprised to meet 
the Indians and the French, who, yelling like demons, 
attacked from both sides of the road. The Virginia 
militia took to the trees, Indian fashion, but Braddock 
kept his men in solid column. They could, not see the 
enemy. They were falling fast, and finally began to 
retreat. Braddock was mortally wounded, and Wash- 
ington, with his brave Virginians, protected the retreat. 




WASHINGTON AND THE 'VIRGINI.\NS SAVE BRADDOCK S ARMY 

Braddock lived long enough to see his mistake. He 
presented Washington with his favorite servant. Wash- 
ington read the funeral service over his grave. 

The other expeditions also resulted in failure, except 



The Last Conflict 



107 



the one against the gentle Acadians. They had refused 
to become EngHshmen although France had given them 
up more than twenty years before. Many of them were 
now forced to leave their homes and were scattered 
among the other colonists along 
the Atlantic coast. Some went to 
Louisiana. Relatives, friends, and 
lovers were separated. Out of this 
circumstance grew Longfellow's 
beautiful story of Evangeline. 
Western Pennsylvania and 
northern Virginia were now open 
to the Indians' tomahawk, scalp- 
ing knife, and torch. Washing- 
ton took command of the 
frontiersmen in the Valley of the 
Shenandoah in order to defend 
their homes. 

149. Begins to look like French 
success (1756-1757). The Seven ^°^'^ J°^^^« °^ montcalm 
Years' War had broken out in Europe. Austria, France, 
and Russia united their fortunes to break the rising 
power of Prussia, whose king was Frederick the Great. 
England joined Prussia but she did not fight well because 
her generals bought their positions instead of winning 
them. Hence, for the next two years, the English, as 
they had done in 1755, planned campaigns, but the 
French won them. Montcalm, the new French hero, 
gained both Oswego and Fort William Henry. 

150. William Pitt to the front. The English people, 
tired of their corrupt leaders, turned them out and called 
William Pitt to govern. He opposed corruption and 
believed in the people. Both England and America took 




From a print, painted and enlarged 
by Antoine Francois Sergent in 1790 



io8 



The Conflict Over North America 



heart. Able commanders were sent to America and 
the colonists raised more soldiers than ever before. 

151. Louisburg and Fort Duquesne fall (1758). Pitt's 
fleet and army hammered down the walls of the mighty 
Louisburg fortress (§141) in six weeks, and 5,000 French 
soldiers surrendered. (Map, page 96.) 

Washington now joined General Forbes, whose army, 
composed of regular British troops and militia from 
Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina, 
was to capture Fort Duquesne. The Indians deserted ; the 
French blew up the fort and fled. Washington hoisted the 
English flag, and the place, now the city of Pittsburgh, 
was named Fort Pitt, in honor of the great Englishman. 

152. Failure at Ticonderoga. The largest army yet 

seen in America, 15,000 strong, 
gathered at Lake George to 
attack Fort Ticonderoga. A 
French army threatened to 
break through to New York, 
thus separating New England 
from New York. 

General Howe, one of Pitt's 
generals, was killed in a skir- 
mish and one of the "left over" 
generals six times ordered the 
English to assault the works. 
Each time they were beaten 
back. Nearly 2,000 men fell, 
the largest number killed in 
America up to that time. 

153. The fall of Quebec. A decisive victory (1759). 
Pitt was pushing things. He sent a force to capture 
Niagara, and he rebuilt Fort Oswego, thus, with the 




From a print cnKraved from a portrait 
painted by Hichard Bromptom 

WILLIAM PITT 

Pill was the idol of Ihe colonisls 



The Last Conflict 



109 



fall of Fort Duquesne, forever destroying the French 
hope of reaching the Mississippi by way of the Ohio. 

While Amherst was forc- 
ing the French out of Crown 
Point and Ticonderoga, 
General Wolfe, one of Pitt's 
new generals, was moving 
against Quebec, the key to 
Canada. The fortress was 
on a high bluff and sur- 
rounded by almost perpen- 
dicular walls of solid rock. 
Wolfe had almost given up 
when he heard of a steep, 
narrow way up the bluff 
where bold men might 
climb. 

He moved 3,500 men up 
the river while cannon from 
his warship stormed the 
beach below. WhJle waiting 
with his men for the ebb of the tide Wolfe told a com- 
rade that he expected to be killed on the morrow, and 
repeated in a low voice this stanza from Gray's "Elegy 
in a Country Churchyard ' ' : 

"The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, 
And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave 
Await alike the inevitable hour: 
The paths of glory lead but to the grave." 

In the gray dawn Wolfe's men clambered up the steep 
bluff and formed in solid column on the Plains of Abraham. 
Wolfe encouraged his men. They had not long to wait, 
for Montcalm immediately moved to the attack. Wolfe's 




From a rare mezzotint engraved 
by Richard Houston 

JAMES WOLFE 

'Mad, is he?" said the king. "I hope he will 

bite some of my other generals" 



no 



The Conflict Over North America 



men charged with bayonets. Wolfe fell, mortally 
wounded. As he was being borne to the rear he heard 
the cry of victory. "Now God be praised," he said; 
"I die happy." Montcalm too had fallen. When told he 
must die he replied, "So much the better; I shall not 
live to see the surrender of Quebec." 

The loss of Quebec and of Montcalm was a fatal blow 
to New France. The English colonies were wild with joy 
as the news of the victory spread over the land although 
everyone mourned the death of Wolfe. The next year 
Montreal surrendered, and the dream of a New France 
passed forever. 

r 




From the painting by Benja 
THE DEATH OF GENERAL WOLFE 



154. War with the Indians. As an echo of the great 
war not yet closed, ,the Indians broke out in various 
places. The bloodiest of these outbreaks were the war 
with the Cherokees and Pontiac's War. The Cherokees 
had been restless for a long time, committing murder, 
until in 1760 the militia, aided by regulars, burned their 



The Last Conflict 



111 



towns. The Cherokees in desperation attacked Fort 
Loudon beyond the Alleghenies, and captured and mur- 
dered its garrison. General 
Grant, who with 1,200 reg- 
ulars came to Charleston, 
was joined by 1,400 militia. 
(Map, opposite page 22.) 
This little army destroyed 
many of their towns and 
completely crushed the 
Cherokees. 

The Indians of the North- 
west saw their doom when 
the French were beaten. 
Pontiac, a wonderfully elo- 
quent and able chief, united 
these tribes in a widespread 
conspiracy to strike down 
the whites at one blow and 
drive them east of the 
mountains. On a given day the blow fell on all the posts 
from Pennsylvania to Mackinac. The Indians took many 
forts and hundreds of frontier families were wiped out or 
driven from their homes. But the English had learned 
how to fight the Indians, and easily beat them. From 
then until the Revolutionary War there was little trouble 
with the Indians. 

155. The treaty of peace. Toward the end of this 
war Spain had joined France, as in Queen Anne's War 
(§139). Her help did not save France, and she herself 
lost Florida. When peace was made, she gave Florida 
to the English, and they yielded all claims from recent 
victories in Cuba and the Philippine Islands. France 




From an old print 
PONTIAC 
A great Indian warrior 



112 The Conflict Over North America 

gave up to England all of her Northern possessions, and 
to Spain New Orleans and all west of the Mississippi. 

156. The result of the great war. Both England and 
the colonies were deep in debt as a consequence of the 
war. The colonies had paid more than their share. 
Parliament recognized this and, under Pitt's influence, 
paid back to them about $5,000,000. But they had also 
learned how to fit out armies, what it cost in money, food, 
and clothing, and how to beat the Indian at his own game. 
Also many men had received extensive military training. 

Another result was that English institutions were to 
spread throughout America. This meant a great deal. 
France was not then the free country that it is to-day. 
In her colonies the government was by the king and his 
officers, and not by the people as in the English. In all 
"New France," as her American possessions were called, 
there had been no representative assembly, and no town 
governed by its own people, nor was there anywhere 
trial by jury. As a result of the war Canada was to have 
the same rights and liberties as other British colonies. ^^ 

Above all, the war brought the colonies closer together. 
It made them feel that they had much in common. 
They were proud of being Englishmen, and of having 
English rights and liberties. They saw that their Spanish 
and French neighbors did not enjoy these things so fully, 
and resolved more firmly than ever to keep them. Their 
rights would have been safe, if broad-minded men like 
Pitt had continued to guide the British Empire. But 
the time was at hand when a very different kind of man 
was to be at its head and to threaten its liberties. Would 
the colonists submit, or would they stand up for the old 
rights of free Englishmen as their forefathers had often 
done in the home country? 



Period of the American Revolution 

STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF ENGLISHMEN 

THE FIRST STEPS 

157. A new kind of king (1760). For more than 
seventy-five years the kings of England had been losing 
power while Parliament had been gaining it, thanks 
to the Whigs of England. 
George III resolved to take that 
power back. To do so he had to 
bribe and browbeat Parliament 
into submitting to his will. The 
noblest statesmen of England 
turned against him and mobs 
stoned the king's carriage for his 
treatment of one of the members 
of Parliament. Many of the 
Whigs felt that the liberty won 
by their two revolutions""* was 
in great danger. The danger 
was as great in the colonies as 
in England. If the king cared 
little for the rights of English- 
men at home, how could he 
be expected to be kinder to his subjects in America? 

158. Would Englishmen give up their rights? Charles I 
had lost his head and James II his throne ^^ by trying 
to take away their people's rights. Would George III 
succeed? Who would take the lead in resisting him? 
Would it be the men in old England or those in the 




From the portrait by 
Thomas Gainsborough 

GEO. Ill, KING OF ENGLAND 

Against him our forefathers fought for 

the rights of Englishmen 



113 



114 



Struggle for the Rights of Englishmen 




colonies? They stood on an equal footing, for the 
colonists felt that they were as truly Englishmen as any 
in the home country. They claimed the same rights as 

if they had been ' ' abiding and 
born within the realm of Eng- 
land." 

159. Attempts to regulate 
trade. There was something 
in the open air and the free 
life of the new country that 
seemed to strengthen their 
love for liberty. Harsh gov- 
ernors learned this quickly, 
and so did all who interfered 
with their trade. 

England was more liberal 
toward her colonies than other 
countries. But it was com- 
mon then to think of colonial 
trade as chiefly for the good of the mother country, and 
some of her rules seemed hard to those in America. 

Navigation Acts had been passed from time to time 
since the days of Cromwell (§40). The purpose of these 
was (j) to make the colonists trade with England rather 
than with foreign countries, and (2) to see that their 
goods were carried in English ships or their own rather 
than in foreign ones. 

Other laws restricted trade between the colonies them- 
selves, and even forbade them to make some things that 
English merchants wished to sell to them. In order to 
help the planters in the British West Indies, the Sugar 
Act (1733) taxed all sugar and molasses from the French 
or Spanish islands. 



After a portrait by Sir Joshua Reynolds 
EDMUND BURKE 

An English Statesman who sympathized 
■with the colonists 



The First Steps 



115 



But these laws had not been strictly enforced, and the 
colonists had carried on their trade very much as they 
pleased. 

Now came rumors that 
King George and his minis- 
ters were planning to revise 
these laws and enforce 
them. If so, they might 
well consider the words of 
James Otis against the Writs 
of Assistance. He voiced 
the feeling of the colonists. 

160. James Otis and the 
Writs of Assistance (1761). 
James Otis was a young 
lawyer holding an office for 
the king. He gave it up 
and gave up the chance for 
promotion in order that he 
might speak against the 
Writs of Assistance. These 
writs were "general" search warrants used by the cus- 
toms officers to search houses or any place, at any time, 
from cellar to garret, for smuggled goods. The speech of 
Otis roused the interest of the whole country. He 
declared that "our ancestors as British subjects, and 
we their descendants, are entitled to all those rights by 
the British constitution. ... A man's house is his 
castle; and whilst he is quiet he is as well guarded as a 
prince in his castle." No more writs were used in Boston, 
although no decision against them was now given. James 
Otis had struck the keynote of the next fifteen years of 
agitation. 




From a painting by J. D. Blackburn 
JAMES OTIS 

Olis Struck the keynote of the Revolution: 

"Americans are Englishmen with 

the rights of Englishmen" 



ii6 



Struggle for the Rights of Englishmen 



8 






i6i. The Stamp Act (1765). The plan of the king and 
his ministers soon became clear. They proposed to keep an 
army of ten thousand soldiers in America. 
They said this army was to defend the 
colonies from the attacks of Indians and 
foreign enemies. But the colonists felt able 
to take care of themselves, and they feared 
that the soldiers would be used to interfere 
with their liberties. 

Nor did they like the way by which 
money was to be raised to help pay for the 
soldiers. The plan was (/) to make some 
changes in the Sugar Act (§159) and 
enforce it strictly, (2) to pass a Stamp Act. 
The latter especially aroused the colonists. 
By it every person wishing to marry, or 
using deeds to property, bills of merchan- 
dise, or in fact any legal paper, of any 
sort, had to pay from one cent to $50 
out of his own pocket. The Americans 
took alarm and said that "taxation with- 
out representation is tyranny" (§164). 
This did not mean that they wished to send 
representatives to Parliament in England, 
but it did mean that they wanted the 
king to get his money as he had always 
had it, from the colonial assemblies where 
the people were represented (§104). 

162. The first revolutionary organizations. In every 
colony the bolder men formed a secret society to resist 
the Stamp Act. This society was known as the "Sons 
of Liberty." The members posted notices denouncing 
the law; they called mass meetings, and paraded the 




STAMPS USED 
IN 1766 



The First Steps 



117 



streets in large numbers, crying "Liberty, property, and 
no stamps!" If a stamp officer refused to resign he was 
compelled to cry out this motto or was ridden out of 
town on a rail. 

The merchants living in the seaports formed the 
organization that probably influenced England most. 
This was called the "Non-Importation Agreement," 
which stated that they would buy no goods from England 
while the Stamp Act lasted. With nobody to buy, 
nobody could sell, and many manufactures ceased in 




RESISTANCE TO THE STAMP ACT 

In these riots the stamp agent was often compelled to ride a rail 
through the streets 

England. Her men were thrown out of work and were 
soon storming Parliament with petitions for a repeal of 
the act. In America the "Daughters of Liberty," with 
needle and thread, spinning wheel, and hand loom, went 
to work to supply Americans with the things they had 
obtained from England. If the use of American products 
became a habit, the stamp would prove expensive to 
England. 



ii8 



Struggle for the Rights of Englishmen 



163. The southern colonies resent the Stamp Act. 

The southern colonies took their part in the formation of 
these societies, but there were other events that called 
for attention. Virginia stirred the other colonies to 
resistance by the resolutions of Patrick Henry. Henry 




From a rare ensraving 
PATRICK HENRY ADDRESSING THE HOUSE OF BURGESSES 

was a born orator. He failed at keeping store and at 
farming, but he studied law and then became a success. 
He had already "won" the "Parsons' Case,"-'' and now 
threw himself with all his power into a great speech 
against the Stamp Act. He ended with the words that 
every school boy knows: "Caesar had his Brutus; 
Charles I his Cromwell, and George HI" — ["Treason, 
treason!" cried the speaker of the House] — "may profit 
by their example. If this be treason, make the most 
of it." The resolutions asserting that the House of 
Burgesses alone could tax Virginians passed, and were 
published broadcast over the land. 



The First Steps 



119 



In North Carolina the governor suddenly found his 
house surrounded by 700 Sons of Liberty demanding 
the repeal of the Stamp Act. They refused to go to 
their homes until the stamp officer had resigned and the 
other officers had taken an oath not to put the law in 
force. In South Caro- 
lina images of stamp 
sellers were hanged 
and then burned, and 
church bells were 
tolled. 

164. The Stamp Act 
Congress (1765). The 
colonies now felt that 
they must act together. 
A congress was held 
in New York to take 
united action. Nine 
colonies sent represen- 
tatives. Among the 
great men in this colo- 
nial congress were two 
from South Carolina — John Rutledge, a famous lawyer, 
and Christopher Gadsden, a scholar and patriot. James 
Otis stood for Massachusetts, John Dickinson for Penn- 
sylvania, and the Livingstons, Robert and Philip, for 
New York. 

The most important work was to publish to the colonies 
and to Great Britain a declaration of their rights as 
EngHshmen. They asserted: (i) that the colonists are 
entitled to the rights of natural-born subjects; (2) that 
Englishmen can be taxed by their own representatives 
only; (3) that the colonists cannot be represented in 




From a photograph after a painting 
CHRISTOPHER GADSDEN 

American patriot and Revolutionary officer 



I20 Struggle for the Rights of Englishmen 

Parliament, and (4) that therefore they can be taxed 
only by their own legislatures. It meant a great deal 
that this Declaration of Rights was similar to the speech 
of Otis and the resolutions of Henry. Christopher 
Gadsden gave voice to colonial sentiment when he 
said, "There ought to be no New England man, no 
New Yorker known on the continent, but all of us 
Americans." 

165. Parliament repeals the Stamp Act^^ (1766). 
George III opposed but could not prevent the repeal of 
the Stamp Act. The outcry in England and America 
produced great debates in Parliament. The greatest 
men in England, led by William Pitt (now Earl of 
Chatham) and Edmund Burke, vigorously demanded its 
repeal (§175). William Pitt declared that "three millions 
of people so dead to all the feelings of liberty as volun- 
tarily to submit to be slaves, would have been fit instru- 
ments to make slaves of ourselves." 

Great rejoicing followed the repeal. London was 
illuminated and the colonists were beside themselves 
with joy. They built bonfires, rang bells, and colonial 
assemblies erected statues to William Pitt. The colonies 
seemed to forget the Declaratory Act which Parliament 
had just passed, that it had the right to bind the colonies 
in all cases whatsoever. 

166. New taxes in an old way (1767). But the king 
needed money, and since the Americans had opposed the 
Stamp Act because it was a direct tax. Parliament passed 
a law putting taxes on certain goods imported into the 
colonies, such as tea, glass, paper, and paints. Because 
the king intended to use the money to pay governors, 
judges, and other royal officers, the people of the colonies 
opposed even this tax. These officers had been paid by 



The First Steps 



121 



the colonial assemblies, and they sometimes paid little 
and at other times more, according to the way the officers 
had performed their duties. The old indignation flamed 
up again and the Sons of Liberty and the Association 
for Non-Importation took up their work of resistance. 

167. Samuel Adams writes the circular letter (1768). 
Samuel Adams, a graduate of Har- 
vard, but, like Patrick Henry, a 
failure until he took up politics, 
knew how to appeal to men, the 
common man. He became "the 
man of the town meeting" and 
was sent to the legislature. Here 
he wrote the "circular letter" 
which asserted the rights of the 
colonies and appealed for united 
action in opposing the new taxes. 
The king was furious. He de- 
manded that Massachusetts recall 
her letter and that the other 
colonial assembHes treat it with ,, samuel adams 

Adams was a Harvard graduate. He 

contempt or pay the penalty of -^"^f ;;y,7//''^ ^t'l'/cS'^^'f '' 
being dismissed. In spite of this "Manofihetownmeetmg' 

the other colonies expressed their approval of the letter 
and Massachusetts refused to recall it. The king sent 
two regiments to Boston to back up the governor. 

168. Violence in the colonies. The colonists were 
growing more and more desperate. The troops in Boston 
acted ugly. A collision occurred and several citizens 
were shot by the soldiers. This event is called the Boston 
Massacre (1770). Samuel Adams, in the name of the 
Boston town meeting, demanded the removal of the 
troops. They were sent to the castle in the harbor. 




From the painting by 
John Singleton Copley 



122 



Struggle for the Rights of Englishmen 



A band of Rhode Islanders burned the revenue ship, 
the "Gaspe." In New York the citizens and soldiers 
had a fight over the "Hberty pole." This was called the 

Battle of Golden Hill. In 
North Carolina the people 
gathered under the name of 
"Regulators" and fought a 
bloody battle with the gov- 
ernor at Alamance (May 
i6, 1771). 

169. Lord North tries 
to trick the Americans. 
Thanks to the Non-Impor- 
tation Agreement, the trade 
with Great Britain had 
fallen off three or four mil- 
lion dollars. Lord North 
took off all duties except 
that on tea, but the Amer- 
icans still refused to buy 
tea. The East India Tea 
Company was going bankrupt, and something had to be 
done. The shrewdest trick was now played. The largest 
duty on tea on its way to America was always paid in 
some English port. Lord North had this tax removed, 
so that the colonists could buy tea cheaper than London. 
Surely the Americans would jump at this bait! But 
principle was at stake, and the Americans refused. 

170. New revolutionary organizations. In 1772 Samuel 
Adams moved that the town meeting of Boston appoint 
a committee to correspond with like committees of other 
towns. In a short time each town in Massachusetts had 
its secret Committee of Correspondence hard at work. 




From a portrait made in 1775 
by Sir Nathaniel Dance 

FREDERICK, LORD NORTH, EAUL 
OF GUILDFORD 

The tool of George III. Cornwallis' 
surrender drove him from power 



The First Steps 



123 



In 1773 a group of patriots in the Virginia House of 
Burgesses, among them Thomas Jefferson, carried a 
motion for a committee to correspond with the other 
assembUes. It spread to every colony. These organi- 
zations were most important in a day when there was no 
railroad, telegraph, or telephone. They helped to pro- 
duce a permanent union of the colonies. 

171. "Tea parties" in the colonies. These organiza- 

v^/'','M&*'#A, tions were 
formed not a 
bit too soon, 
for tea ships 
were already 
on their way 
to America. 
Great mass 
meetings in 
New York 
and Phila- 
d e 1 p h i a 
forced the 
tea agents to 
resign and 
the tea ships 
to return 
home. In 
Charleston, 
the agents 
were forced 
to resign, 

and the tea was stored in cellars and sold for the public good 
during the Revolution. At Annapolis the spirit of the pat- 
riots was reflected in the burning of the "Peggy Stewart "^^ 




After the painting by F. B. Mayer 
BURNING OF THE " PEGGY STEWART" IN THE 
HARBOR AT ANNAPOLIS 



124 



Struggle for the Rights of Englishmen 



T- 




■^1 



In Boston (1773) the agents defied the people, and the 

Committee of Correspondence called a great meeting in 

1. the Old South Meet- 

I inghouse. Seven 

I thousand from coun- 

fc try and town tried 

|'i\ to get into the meet- 

h \ \ ing. Samuel Adams 

Mj^ ■ -- . presided. They de- 

iiii!j ^ bated and declared 

that the tea should 
not be landed. They 
knew the king's men 
were determined 
that it should be 
landed. Finally, in 
the dusk of evening, 
after the lights had 
been brought in, 
Samuel Adams arose 
and said: "This 
meeting can do no 
more to save the 
country." Imme- 
diately the "war 
whoop of the Mo- 
hawks" sounded 
and the people rushed out, followed to the wharf a band of 
men disguised as Indians, and saw 342 chests of tea dumped 
into the bay. That night Paul Revere, the "Courier of 
the Revolution," started to carry the news to New York, 
Philadelphia, and to the southward. Everywhere the 
people shouted when they heard the news from Boston. 






v.--.\ ^^^iSff^f'v ^S^*^ -^Wtr't *(■* - ■:.'s--^ 




THE OLD SOUTH MEETINGHOUSE 

Besides being the meeting place for Boston's citizens, 

British troops occupied it during the siege oj the city 



The First Steps 



125 




172. The colonies are punished (1774). When the news 
came to England from Boston, the king was furious. 
The people must be punished. In spite of strong 
opposition from wise and far-seeing 
Englishmen, such as Edmund Burke, 
Charles James Fox, and Isaac Barre, 
the king's friends in Parliament 
passed the "Intolerable Acts." (7) 
They first closed the port of Boston. 
Not a skiff could cross its harbor. 
Trade was stopped. Until the people 
paid for the tea they had destroyed 
they must starve. (2) All officers, 
except the representatives, were to 
be paid and could be removed by the 
king. Even town meetings were 
abolished, (j) An act permitted 
every officer or soldier committing 
murder in Massachusetts to be sent out of the colony for 
trial. {4) The Quebec Act extended the boundary of Can- 
ada to the Ohio River, thus cutting off four colonies from 
their western lands. To cap the climax. General Gage 
with four regiments was sent to Boston as military gov- 
ernor to enforce these laws at the point of the bayonet. 

173. A flame of indignation. Instantly America was 
aflame with indignation. But the people were equal to 
the occasion. From every colony came food, clothing, 
money, and hot words. "Don't pay for an ounce of the 
tea!" wrote Christopher Gadsden of South CaroHna. 
Patrick Henry in old St. Johns Church, Richmond (still 
standing), was a flame of fire when he declared: "We 
must fight. I repeat it, sir, we must fight." George 
Washington, a leader of men, declared he was ready 



A BRITISH REGULAR 



126 



Struggle for the Rights of Englishmen 



"to raise one thousand men, subsist them at my own 
expense, and march myself at their head for the relief 
of Boston." Maryland asserted that these acts "would 
lay the foundation for the utter destruction of British 
America." South Carolina sounded a keynote: "The 
whole country must be animated with one great soul, and 
all America must stand by one another even unto death." 
174. The First Continental Congress (i774)- All 

America seemed ready 
for the First Continental 
Congress, which met in 
Carpenters' Hall, Phila- 
delphia. Only Georgia 
was without represen- 
tation, and she sent 
words of hearty ap- 
proval. Great men 
were there. Samuel 
Adams and Richard 
Henry Lee shook hands 
and became lifelong 
friends. Patrick Henry 
and John Adams, the 
two greatest orators of 
the Revolution, listened 
to each other for the 
first time. John Dick- 
inson, who wrote the 
Farmer's Letters 
against the tea tax, was 
there, and Roger Sher- 
man of Connecticut, who had once pegged shoes for a 
living, was welcomed by the Rutledges, rich planters 




F/ora a photograph 

carpenters' hall 

The meeting place of the first Continental 

Congress in 1774 



The First Steps 



127 




THE FIRST PRAYER IN CONGRESS 

The first prayer offered in Congress was by Reverend Mr. Duche, 

an Episcopalian, at the suggestion of that staunch 

old Puritan, Samuel Adams 



from South Carolina. George Washington was there 
dressed in the garb of a Virginia colonel, as if to say: 
"I am ready." 
Men of almost 
every sort of 
religious opin- 
ion were to be 
found in the 
Continental 
Congress, but 
all alike were 
bound to sub- 
mit to the 
common will. 29 

This Con- 
gress sent an 

address to the king, and to Parliament a Declaration 
of Rights as Englishmen. The Congress took two very 
important steps: (i) They formed Continental Associa- 
tions of Non-Importation and appointed the Committees 
of Correspondence to enforce it. These committees 
established network associations over the whole country. 
(2) They voted to stand by Boston in her opposition and 
to meet force by force. This Congress stood for union 
and for resistance if necessary. The leaders went home 
and began to prepare for the struggle. 

175. Two parties in England (1775). When the king 
and his friends, called Tories, heard from the Congress 
they were more determined than ever to compel the 
Americans to submit. The friends of America, called 
Whigs, saw the coming danger and tried to prevent it. 
William Pitt (§150), now Lord Chatham, moved in 
Parliament that the troops be removed from Boston, 



128 



Struggle Jor the Rights of Englishmen 



but the Tories defeated the motion. Not discouraged, 
after talking with FrankHn he introduced a plan of 
conciliation to restore the former good feeling in America, 
but his motion was again defeated. Burke, too, made 
a powerful plea for conciliation, but it was of no use. 
Lord North (§169), a Tory, also came forward with a plan, 
which Parliament passed. This plan offered to settle 
the differences with each colony separately. But it 
came too late. America was united and felt that the 
cause of one was the cause of all. 



i./- 



THE CONFLICT BEGINS 

176. Lexington and Concord (1775). General Gage 
found Boston a hot place. The king would blame him 
if he did not do something, and the Americans if he did. 
He sent a secret expedition to destroy military stores 
at Concord and to arrest Samuel Adams and John Han- 
_,^. -j.-,- „:,.^ cock, two of the ringleaders. 

The patriots were on the 
watch, and the troops were 
hardly across the Charles 
River, April 18, before a 
light flashed from the tower 
of the Old North Church. 
Paul Revere and William 
Dawes, booted and spurred, 
rode to alarm the people. 
What a noise they made as 
they battered at doors or 
yelled the alarm : ' ' The reg- 
ulars are coming ! ' ' Watch 
that father and son as they 
snatch their guns and munition bags and hurry away 




PAUL REVERE WARNING THE COUNTKY 

OF THE APPROACH OF THE BRITISH 

REGULARS 




THE COLONIES 

DURING 

THE REVOLUTION 

Showing the territory-covered 

by the various campaigns 

Scale or Miles 



& 50 75 100 



Copjrigtl. ISCS, by Rimd, UcJJsUf 4 Comfan/ 



The Conflict Begins 



129 



to join their fellows! The clang of the church bell, the 
sound of the signal guns followed by signal fires, spread 
the warning far and wide. Fifty minutemen stood in 




RETREAT OF THE BRITISH REGULARS TO BOSTON 

line at Lexington when Pitcairn, a British officer, shouted: 
"Disperse, ye rebels!" They refused, and a volley was 
poured into their ranks; eight fell dead and others were 
wounded. The minutemen retreated. 

177. The North Bridge and the retreat. The British 
hastened to Concord, where 400 minutemen met and 
drove them from the Old North Bridge. The British 
started for Lexington. From behind bushes and trees, 
houses and stone walls, and from hilltops, the "New 
England farmers" were driving troops that had stood 
the hottest battles in Europe. Percy came with 1,200 
regulars, armed with cannon. They formed a hollow 
square at Lexington and admitted the tired troops, who 
lay upon the ground with "their tongues hanging out 
like dogs after a chase." 

The minutemen followed them to the very gates of 
Boston, where British ships gave them protection. The 



I30 



Struggle for the Rights of Englishmen 



regulars had retreated in the face of fire from farmers! 
Would the world believe such a story? A total loss to 
the British of 273 was the proof — nearly three times 
the loss of the Americans. In the next few days 16,000 
minutemen, from all New England, came pouring in 
toward Boston. The siege of Boston had begun. 




A MAP OF BOSTON AND VICINITY 
Showing plans of military movements during 1775 and 1776 

The news went ringing to the southward. In five 
days it had reached Philadelphia, in six more it stirred 
the Old Dominion, and by May 4 it was making its way 
through the old North Colony. In a month from the 
day of battle it had reached Georgia. Across the moun- 
tains in the wilds of Kentucky bold pioneers were form- 
ing a town when the news reached them. They named 
it Lexington! The country resounded with the prepar- 
ation for war. 

178. The Battle of Bunker Hill (1775). For two 
months the British did not dare show their heads out- 
side of Boston, although General Howe had come with 
reenforcements. He planned to occupy Bunker Hill, 



The Conflict Begins 



131 



but the patriots were too quick for him, and on the night 
of June 16 Prescott with.- 1,000 men seized Breed's Hill 
and fortified it. The Americans 
must be driven out or they might 
drive out the British. The Ameri- 
cans were reenf orced by Putnam and 
Stark, and were ready and eager for 
the attack. 

Three thousand picked Britons 
charged up the hill in solid columns 
to storm the breastwork. "Don't 
fire till you see the whites of their 
eyes," said General Putnam to the 
Americans. Three times the British 
charged and twice they retreated. 
The third time the minutemen found 
themselves short of ammunition, 
but clubbed their guns and stubbornly retreated. 




A MINUTEMAN 



What 




A TYPE OF THE RAW MILITI 'iMAN 



could they do against bayonets ! 
The Americans lost 449 men, 
chiefly in the hand-to-hand 
conflict. But they lost as well 
the noble General Warren. The 
British loss was i , 1 54, more than 
one third of their men. The 
American minutemen had shot 
to hit. "I wish we could sell 
them another hill at the same 
price," said General Greene. 
"The liberties of the country 
are safe," declared Washington 
on his way to take command 
of the troops at Boston. 



132 



Struggle for the Rights of Englishmen 



179. Washington made commander in chief (1775). 
The Second Continental Congress had already met 
(May 10) and selected as their president John Hancock, 
a rich merchant of Boston who had been outlawed by 
the British. Benjamin Harrison of Virginia, the ancestor 
of two presidents, escorted him to the chair. John 
Adams, a Puritan and a great orator, arose and declared 
in favor of George Washington, a Cavalier, as com- 
mander in chief of the American armies. He said that 
he had "but one gentleman in mind for that important 
position, a gentleman from Virginia, whose skill and 
experience as an officer, whose independent fortune and 
great talents and excellent universal character would 
unite the colonies better than any other person in the 







A COLLEGE WELCOME AT YALE 

Union." Congress v6ted unanimously. Washington, 
much embarrassed, said: "I beg it may be remembered 
by every gentleman in this room that I declare with 
the utmost sincerity, I do not think myself equal to the 
command I am honored with." 



The Conflict Begins 



133 



On July 3, 1775, Washington, amid great rejoicing of 
the army, took supreme command under the famous Har- 
vard elm on Cambridge Common. 
Congress ordered troops from both 
Maryland and Virginia to make it 
truly a "Continental" army. Soon 
came brave Daniel Morgan with 
his Virginia sharpshooters^" in hunt- 
ing shirts and coonskin caps each 
bearing Patrick Henry's words, ' ' Lib- 
erty or Death." Morgan saluted: 
"From the right bank of the Poto- 
mac, General!" With tears in his 
eyes Washington went along the 
ranks, shaking hands with each man. 
They were his own neighbors ! 

180. Defeat in Canada; victory in _j. 

Boston. Ethan Allen with his Green one of morgan's Virginia 

. , ., , , - SHARPSHOOTERS 

Mountain Boys had already taken 

Ticonderoga. Americans also captured Montreal and after 
great suffering reached Quebec. But there they were re- 
pulsed. Their general was killed and they left Canada. 
Early in 1776 the people grew anxious for Washington 
to strike a blow. One night while a terrific cannon- 
ade from the American lines held the British atten- 
tion, Washington sent 2,000 men silently to occupy 
Dorchester Heights. They thus commanded Boston. 
General Howe, remembering the loss at Bunker Hill and 
not wishing to repeat it, evacuated Boston on March 17, 
and the American forces marched in amid the rejoicing 
of the town. Washington had raised the hopes of the 
country. The British sailed for Halifax, Nova Scotia, 
carrying 1,000 Tories with them. 
6 




i.U 



Struggle for the Rights of Englishmen 



i8i. Good news from the Carolinas (1776). The 
people of Virginia had already driven Governor Dunmore 
from their midst and in his anger he had burned the 
promising town of Norfolk. Howe was doing nothing 
in Boston, so the British decided to attack the Carolinas. 
The fleet did not get to Cape Fear until April. A com- 
pany of Scotch Highlanders, lately arrived in the colony, 
joined Governor Martin and marched to the aid of the 
coming fleet. But General Caswell gathered 1,000 
patriots at Moore's Creek, defeated the Highlanders at 
Fayetteville, captured their baggage, and took 900 pris- 
oners. Among 
them was the 
husband of 
Flora McDon- 
al d , made 
famous before 
leaving Scot- 
land by aiding 
the Pretender^^ 
to escape after 
the Battle of 
C u 1 1 o d e n. 
When the Brit- 
ish fleet arrived 
and heard the 
news from 
Moore's Creek 
they thought 
it wise not 
to land. 

Another fleet fresh from England joined them, and they 
sailed for Charleston, where they found 6,000 brave 




SERGEANT JASPER REPLACES THE FLAG AFTER IT WAS 
SHOT AWAY BY THE BRITISH 



The Movement in Favor of Separation 135 

men had gathered to defend their beautiful city. On 
Sullivan Island, fronting Charleston, the Americans 
had built a strong fort of palmetto logs and bags of sand. 
The British fleet attacked furiously, but only to bury 
their shot in the logs and sand of the fort, while the Ameri- 
can gunners took deadly aim and soon had the flagship 
almost a wreck. One British shot cut away the flagstaff 
of the Carolinians and the flag fell outside the fort. In 
the face of the enemy's fire, Sergeant William Jasper 
leaped down and restored it. The story of Jasper and 
his valor is still told at the fireside to show the heroic 
bravery of the men of the Revolution. After a hard 
fight the fleet sailed away from Charleston harbor and 
the British gave the South no more trouble for several 
years. This fort was afterwards named Fort Moultrie, in 
honor of the brave man who commanded in this battle. 

THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 

THE MOVEMENT IN FAVOR OF SEPARATION 

182. How the king drove Americans toward independ- 
ence. At first not an American favored independence. 
Frequently, from 1765 to 1774, Britons had accused us 
of aiming at separation, but such patriots as John Adams, 
Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and George 
Washington denied the charge and asserted that they 
were fighting for the rights of Englishmen (§158). 

It was George III who stood in the way of reconciliation. 
Lord North was mere putty in his hands. In 1775 Con- 
gress sent a petition to the king, stating their grievances. 
He answered (z) by refusing to receive the petition, 
(2) by declaring the Americans rebels, and (3) by hiring 
foreign troops to crush them. These troops came prin- 
cipally from Hesse-Cassel.^- This answer convinced 



136 The Struggle for Independence 

Americans that there was no hope of reconciliation, 
except by submission. ^^ 

183. The people begin to favor independence. The 

sufferings of real war began to make the feeling against 
the king very bitter. As early as May, 1775, the people 
in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, settled mainly 
by Scotch-Irish, declared that they owed no obedience 
to the king, and that from now on only the Provincial 
Congress of North Carolina and the Continental Con- 
gress had authority over them (§53). The bold pioneers 
of North Carolina had spoken for independence more than 
a year before the Declaration was made. 

It was natural, therefore, that the Provincial Assembly 
of North Carolina should be the first to order their dele- 
gates to the Continental Congress to join with that body 
in a declaration of independence. Rhode Island and 
Massachusetts followed the example of the Old North 
State. Virginia, in May, meeting in a great convention, 
ordered her delegates to present to Congress resolutions 
for independence, and sent them by a messenger to 
Philadelphia, where Congress was meeting. Other colo- 
nies joined one by one until the time seemed ripe. 

184. The Declaration of Independence. In June, 
Richard Henry Lee, obeying the voice of Virginia, intro- 
duced the famous resolution that "these united colonies 
are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States." 
Again Massachusetts stood side by side with Virginia, and 
John Adams spoke for Lee's resolution. Some of the mid- 
dle colonies were not rea,dy, so the question was held over. 

But a great committee was appointed to draw up the 
declaration: Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin 
Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston. 
Jefferson was its author. He was skilled in the use of 



The Movement in Favor oj Separation 



137 



his pen and produced a document that will always live. 
In it he declared that "all men are created equal," that 




From the painting by John Trumbull, in the Capitol at Washington 
SIGNING THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 

they have a right to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of 
happiness," and that "the right to rule is derived from 
the consent of the governed."''^ In closing he declared 
in noble language that "these united colonies are, and 
of right ought to be, free and independent States . . . 
and for the support of this Declaration, with a firm 
reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we 
mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and 
our sacred honor." 

Many interesting anecdotes are told of what members of 
Congress said and did on that famous occasion. John 
Hancock was president. He must sign the document first 
and he did, with a large hand "so that the king could 
read it without his spectacles." Ever since, a man's 
signature has been called his "John Hancock." 



138 



The Struggle for Independence 



When Charles Carroll came to sign, the last member 
to do so, some one said: "You are safe, for there are 
many Carrolls in Maryland." "Then I will make it cer- 
tain who I am," said the great man, and wrote Charles 
Carroll of Carrollton. "We must all hang together," 
said some one. "Yes," said the wise and witty Franklin, 
"or we shall all hang separately." 

185. How the Declaration was received. 'Congress 
finally voted on July 4, to make its decision in favor of 



^""■^o 









INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA 
In this building the Continental Congress assembled, Washington was chosen Com- 
mander-in-Chief, and the Declaration of Independence was adopted 

indej:)endence, and the Liberty Bell in Independence Hall 
proclaimed "liberty throughout the land and to the in- 
habitants thereof . "•■'■'^ The people in Philadelphia rejoiced 
and in many parts of -the country great celebrations 
were held. Washington had the Declaration read at the 
head of the army. In New York the people pulled down 
the leaden statue of George III and cast it into bullets. 
But nowhere were the people happier than in Georgia, 



The Movement in Favor of Separation 



139 




READING THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 
TO THE SOLDIERS 



the last colony settled, when they received the news, August 
10, 1776. By this act the people of the colonies be- 
came American 
citizens instead 
of English 
subjects. The 
United Colo- 
nies became 
the United 
States. A new 
nation knocked 
for admission 



to the sister- 
hood of nations. '^"^ 

186. The Loyalists or Tories. Not all the Americans 
were in favor of independence. Some who had opposed 
England, now that "the die was cast" took her side of the 
question, but the great majority stood by the Declaration. 
But some had been on the king's side from the first 
and were still Loyalists. Every State had such men; 
some States more, some less. In every State they were 
under suspicion. A few of the Loyalists were permitted 
to remain at home if they kept still, but the great major- 
ity of them were driven away. Those in the North went 
to Canada" and New Brunswick, while those in the South 
fled to Florida and to the Bahamas. Hundreds of 
their young men joined the British army and fought 
bravely for their king. This was a great misfortune for 
the country; it made the war last much longer, and 
caused most bitter hatred and cruelty among neighbors. 
Besides, many of the Tories were well-to-do and educated, 
and could have been of great service to our country if 
they had stood by it. 



I40 



The Struggle for Independence 



THE BRITISH TRY FOR THE MIDDLE STATES 

187. The purpose of the campaign. If the British 

could only separate the "ringleaders," Virginia and 
Massachusetts, a great blow would be struck at the re- 
bellion. The easiest way, they thought, 
was to seize New York harbor and the 
line of the Hudson and Lake Champlain 
to Canada. 

188. The Battle of Long Island and 
the retreat (1776). Washington in Bos- 
ton guessed the plans of the British 
and hastened with his army 
York, where Brooklyn Height 
been fortified. Admiral Howe 
with his fleet had now arrived 
from England and had 
raised his brother's army 
to 30,000 men. Wash- 
ington had only 18,000 

THE MILITARY MOVEMENTS IN 
THE MIDDLE COLONIES, 1776-1778 

The dotted lines show - 
Washington's line of 
march during the 
retreat from New York 
and the campaign 
ending with the Battle 
of Princeton 




men, mostly untrained. He fought the Battle of Long Is- 
land (August) and was defeated.'"* Howe expected to coop 



The British Try for the Middle States 141 

him up in the fortification, capture the army, and end 
the war. But on a foggy night Washington and his men 
were quietly rowed over to New York. The British were 
surprised next day when they saw the empty fort. 

Howe^^ followed and Washington retreated up the Hud- 
son, fought a skirmish or two, and took up a strong 
position near White Plains.""^ Howe, growing tired of 
trying to outplan him, turned and stormed Fort Washing- 
ton. He then crossed the Hudson and captured Fort Lee. 

189. The retreat across the Jerseys; Lee's capture. 
Washington, leaving 6,000 men under General Charles 
Lee, threw the rest of his forces across the Hudson, and 
began his famous retreat through Jersey. The British 
were in hot pursuit. The people began to lose heart, 
and thousands of soldiers returned to their homes. 

General Lee was an Englishman; he talked loud and 
Congress made him second in command. But he 
wanted to be first. He was writing to Congress and 
refused to join Washington. As good luck would have 
it, Lee was pounced on by the British and captured. 
To the Americans, Lee's loss was a disaster. But they 
did not know him yet. 

Coming just after the defeat on Long Island, the retreat 
up the Hudson, the loss of the two great forts, with the 
capture of Lee, it did seem that all was lost. The people 
did not yet know Washington. 

190. "Washington wins at Trenton (1776). Lord Corn- 
wallis, leading Howe's advance, had followed hard upon 
the heels of Washington to Trenton. The British could 
not cross the Delaware because Washington had seized 
all the boats. Cornwallis stationed his forces in different 
towns and returned to New York to share in the Christ- 
mas festivities. The British thought the war was over. 



142 



The Struggle for Independence 



Washington's opportunity had come. It was Christ- 
mas night. The Hessian soldiers stationed in Trenton 
had been feasting and drinking all day, as was their 
custom. The weather was bitter cold. ' ' Surely, ' ' thought 
the half-tipsy sentinels, "it's no use to watch on such 
a night." 

But if they had listened they might have heard the 
tramp of marching feet and the rumble of wheels. Wash- 
ington and his men had crossed the Delaware amid 
floating ice, and were rushing for Trenton. Their feet 
left bloodstains on the snow as they marched, and two of 
the poor, thinly clad fellows were frozen to death. But 
the little army never faltered. It was the last chance for 
liberty. 

At daybreak the attack began. The sleepy Hessians 




WASHINGTON ON THE MARCH TO TRENTON 

were aroused, but it was too late. A few volleys, a wild 
charge, and all was over. One thousand of the enemy 



The British Try for the Middle States 



143 



surrendered with all their cannon and supplies. This 
was one of Washington's most famous victories. 

191. Robert Morris raises money for Washington's 
army. Washington was 
now face to face with an 
enemy more dangerous 
than the British. His army 
had received no pay to send 
home to their families. 
They must either go home 
or send money. Washing- 
ton appealed to his good 
friend Robert Morris, a 
merchant prince of Phila- 
delphia. Morris went from 
door to door and soon had 
$50,000 on his own credit. 

The country owes a debt of ^'°'^ * painting by Gilbert Stuart 

gratitude to Robert Morns The friend of Washington. Morris gathered 
for this noble deed and ^noney to pay the revolutionary army 

others like it. Washington pledged his own fortune, 
and the army was ready to fight again. 

192. The Battle of Princeton; result of the campaign. 

Cornwallis hastened with soldiers to Trenton with all 
speed. His soldiers were tired and he said: "At last 
we have run down the old fox and will bag him in the 
morning." The distant boom of cannon in the morn- 
ing awakened Cornwallis. , Washington was fighting the 
Battle of Princeton (January 3, 1777). He struck the 
British rear guard, defeated it, and before Cornwallis 
could come to the rescue was on his way to the heights 
of Morristown. 

Washington's work had raised American feeling to a 




144 



The Struggle for Independence 




WASHINGTON LEADS AGAINST BRITISH LINES 
AT PRINCETON 



high pitch of enthusiasm. The sight of the Hessian 
prisoners marching through Philadelphia was proof of 

Washington's 
success. Com- 
wallis never 
got over this 
surprise.^' He 
referred to it 
when he sur- 
rendered at 
Yorktown. 
Frederick the 
Great declared 
that Washing- 
ton's success in 
this campaign was the most brilliant in military history. 

193. The arrival of distinguished foreigners. The 
American struggle for liberty stirred noble hearts in all 
parts of Europe. Just before the Battle of Brandywine, 
Lafayette, a young nobleman at heart as well as in title, 
came with De Kalb and twelve other French officers. 
He served through the war as a general without pay. 
He was admired by Washington, and today no foreigner 
is so greatly beloved as Lafayette. Kosciusko had come 
the year before. A brave Pole, he was an engineer and 
did great service, especially at Bemis Heights (§198). 
Count Pulaski, another Polish patriot, gave his life for 
American independence (§213). Baron Steuben, from the 
armies of Frederick the Great, became "the great drill- 
master of the American army." 

194. The campaign for the "rebel capital"; Brandy- 
wine (1777). Howe longed for the glory of entering the 
"rebel capital," as Philadelphia was called. In August 



The British Try for the Middle States 



145 



he put his army on shipboard and sailed for the head of 
the Chesapeake. Washington, with "[ 0,000 troops, met 
him at the Brandywine. Howe outflanked the Ameri- 
cans and Washington retreated toward Philadelphia. 
Each lost about 1,000 men in the battle. The British 
army entered Philadelphia on September 26, and Con- 
gress fled to Lancaster. Before going they declared 
Washington dictator for sixty days. 

Although Washington had not defeated Howe, he had 
kept him from helping Burgoyne, whose task it was to 
secure control of the line of the Hudson and Lake 
Champlain to Canada. This failure of Howe to aid 
Burgoyne was a leading cause of final American victory. 

195. Burgojnie's expedition gets under way (1777). 
It did seem an easy thing to send an army from Canada up 
Lake Champlain 
and down the 
Hudson. A side 
expedition under 
St. Leger was to 
go up the St. Law- 
rence and Lake 
Ontario, capture 
Oswego and Fort 
Stanwix and join 
Burgoyne at Al- 
bany. To make 
sure of success, 
H owe was to 
move his army up 
the Hudson to Albany, capture the American forts, and 
join Burgoyne and St. Leger. But the king's minister 
forgot to send Howe's order — a fatal blunder. 




THE CAMPAIGNS AROUND PHILADELPHIA 



146 



The Struggle for Independence 



In June Burgoyne started out with 8,000 men. In July 
they captured Ticf)nderoga. Flushed with success, they 
marched on. Presently they found the way obstructed. 
Logs, trees, and large stones had been placed in the 
roads and fords of streams; bridges had been cut down 
or burned. General Schuyler and his army had not only 




THE UNION JACK 



FLAG OF FORT 
MOULTRIE 



THE RATTLESNAKE FLAG 



done this but had destroyed supplies for miles around. 
Burgoyne had to feed his army on food from Canada. 
He was twenty days in marching twenty miles. When 
he reached Fort Edward he was driven to send 1,000 
men to Bennington for fresh supplies. He knew the 
Americans had collected there food, ammunition, and 
horses, just the supplies he needed. He was sure he 
could capture these stores. 

196. Bennington and Oriskany. New England was 
answering the call to meet the invader. John Stark, 
(§178) a bold frontiersman, rallied 1,000 men and met 
the British at Bennington. His famous speech — "They 
are ours to-night or Molly Stark's a widow" — came true 
in part, for after several hours of hard fighting, the 
Americans captured almost the entire body. 

Everything had gone well with St. Leger and the 
Indians and Tories until Fort Stanwix was reached. 



The British Try for the Middle States 



147 



General Herkimer called for the riflemen of Tryon 
County. Eight hundred came but were caught in an 
ambush in a deep ravine near Oriskany by the Indians 
and Tories. Men grappled and shot and stabbed and 
dashed out each other's brains. Herkimer was mortally 
wounded, but sitting at the foot of a tree he still shouted 




BUNKER HILL FLAG 



FLAG ADOPTED BY CON- 
GRESS IN 1777 



OLD GLORY, OUR 
PRESENT FLAG 



orders to his men. The British retreated leaving the 
Americans in possession of the fort. The Americans 
hoisted over it the British flags they had captured. Above 
these banners they raised a rude flag made of a white shirt, 
a blue jacket and strips from a red petticoat. "•- 

St. Leger continued the siege, but an American force 
under Benedict Arnold had now started to the aid of the 
fort. One day a half-witted Tory came running into the 
British camp, crying, "Arnold and his men are coming," 
and pointed to the leaves -on the trees to show their 
number. The Indians ran away and St. Leger made his 
way back to Canada. 

197. Burgoyne's difficulties increase. The battles of 
Bennington and Oriskany were a great blow to Burgoyne 
and to the British cause. Burgoyne, himself a gallant 
man, felt deeply the disgrace of St. Leger's flight at the 
mere word of Arnold's coming. All the time the British 



148 



The Struggle for Independence 



forces were decreasing, while those of the Americans were 
steadily growing. Burgoyne was now occupying a dan- 
gerous position. Food supplies were becoming scarce. 
Day by day it was growing clearer that Howe was not 
coming from the south in time to give any aid. 

198. Burgoyne's surrender (October, 1777). Wash- 
ington had sent Arnold and Morgan to the aid of General 
Schuyler, who was watching Burgoyne (§195). The New 
England minutemen under General Benjamin Lincoln had 
cut Burgoyne off from Canada. He had nothing to do 
but fight. The Americans were coming from all sides, 
15,000 strong. But just as Burgoyne's final defeat was 
in sight Congress unfortunately put General Gates in 
Schuyler's place. 




^'-.cCHi^ — - .J^ 



Arnold's charge at bemis heights 



The Americans had now occupied Bemis Heights, a 
short distance south from- Saratoga, which had been well 
fortified by Kosciusko. A desperate charge was led by 
Arnold and the British lost heavily. In a second battle 
on the same ground, Morgan's sharpshooters showed great 
skill, and Arnold though he had been dismissed from 



The British Try for the Middle States 



149 



command by the selfish General Gates, spurred in and 
led the Americans to victory/'' Burgoyne now had to 
surrender (October 1 7 , 

1777)- 

199. Immediate and 
remote effects. The 

Americans felt overjoyed. 
The country praised 
Gates for what it thought 
he had done and blamed 
Washington for not hav- 
ing captured Howe. The 
English blamed Howe 
for not capturing Wash- 
ington. The surrender of 
Burgoyne was the turn- 
ing point in the war. 

In England, too, it pro- 
duced a great effect. 
Lord North was for re- 
signing and calling Lord 
Chatham, the friend of 
the colonies, to power. But the king was stubborn. 
Burke and Chatham had already denounced the use of 
Indians by the British. Some of the Whigs (§175) now 
favored ending the war and granting independence and 
even the king favored conciliation. 

Parliament voted to repeal all laws to which the Amer- 
icans had objected and to give up the right of taxation. 
Think what might have been had ParHament passed 
such an act before the Battle of Lexington! But it was 
too late. America had suffered too much, and besides, the 
country was now bound to France by a pledge of honor. 




BURGOYNE S CAMPAIGN 

Showing St. Leger's route 



ISO 



The Struggle Jo? Independence 




200. Franklinwins the hearts and aid of France. Shortly 
after the Declaration of Independence Franklin was sent 

to France to ask her to aid 
us in the war. He won the 
hearts of all. The edu- 
cated people admired him 
for his wisdom, -the fashion- 
able people for his quick 
wit and good manners, and 
the common people praised 
him for his democratic 
ways. Franklin's "old 
brown coat,'' which he re- 
solved to wear until inde- 
pendence was won, always 
drew a crowd. His portrait 
was hung in shop windows, 
and "Franklin fashions" 
became the rage in Paris. 

201. The French Alliance. Franklin had wonderful 
tact and great common sense. Everybody liked him 
and wanted to do what he asked. Many Frenchmen, 
too, were dreaming at this time of freedom for their own 
land. To them Franklin seemed a fine representative of 
a free country, and they were filled with enthusiasm for 
his cause. Then too it may have been that some 
wished to settle old scores with England for their defeats 
in earlier wars. 

So, for various reasons, France was ready to help. 
But to do so openly meant war with England, a very 
serious thing. Therefore at first the king of France sent 
money and arms to America secretly. But after the 
surrender of Burgoyne he believed that independence 



From the original portrait by 
Joseph Sififrein Duplessia 



BENJAMIN FRANKLIN 



The British Try for the Middle States 



151 



would be won, and he was easily persuaded by Franklin 
to make a treaty (1778) by which he promised to send 
his great fleets and his army to help the Americans, 
We in return promised the king not to make peace un- 
til Britain had recognized our independence. When 
England heard this news there was great astonishment 
indeed. Some Englishmen even went so far as to favor 
ending the war. 

It would be hard to overestimate the importance of 
this alliance. It was a great help to us in winning the 
war. France immedi- 
ately sent us men and 
money and arms, all 
sorely needed. The 
French navy helped 
us still more, for we 
were weak on the sea 
and England was very 
strong. The sym- 
pathy and encourage- 
ment of a friendly 
power in Europe also 
cheered our patriots in 
many dark hours. 

This was the begin- 
ning of a long and un- 
broken friendship be- 
tween the two nations. 
Both countries are now 

great free republics ~-=— ^==;=— -c*.).?^ 

and are firmly stand- barthoiTTtI^T^f liberty 

mg side by side tor a gift from Frayue to IheUnUedSlales commemorating 
..-, , ., the one-hundreth anniversary of American 

liberty.** independence 




152 



The Struggle for Independence 



202. Plotting against Washington. From the first, 
fault was found with Washington. "He retreated too 
much" was one of the charges. Many were sure Gates 
was the abler general. He would have led the army to 
victory. General Conway had served in France. For 
this reason he thought he ought to have a higher rank 
than Washington gave him. He joined with a number 
of other discontented persons and planned to ruin Wash- 
ington's reputa- 
tion with the 
people and with 
Congress. They 
intended then to 
make Gates com- 
mander in chief. 
The plot was ex- 
posed and the 
conspirators were 
made ridiculous. 
Washington only 
stood higher than 
before. 

203. Valley 
Forge (1777- 
1778). While 
Howe was feast- 
ing^5 in Phila- 
delphia, and the 
Americans were 
still rejoicing 
over the victory won at Saratoga, Washington and his 
ragged army were entering on the long, hard winter at 
Valley Forge, twenty miles northwest of Philadelphia. 




WASHINGTON AND STEUBEN AT VALLEY FORGE 



The British Try for the Middle States 



153 



ion, 
the 




WASHINGTON AND LEE AT MONMOUTH 

Led was dismissed from the army for treachery 



On the bleak hillsides of that half-mountainous reg 
poorly clad, poorly fed, and housed in log huts, 
men suffered 
dreadfully. 
Washington 
wrote to Con- 
gress: "Two 
thousand 
eight hundred 
and ninety- 
eight men are 
unfit for duty 
because they 
are barefoot 
and other- 
wise naked." 

Afterwards Lafayette said "they had neither coats, hats, 
shirts, nor shoes; their feet and legs froze until they be- 
came black, and it was often necessary to amputate them." 

There were two bright spots in the gloom of Valley 
Forge: Mrs. Washington came to spend a few weeks, 
when the soldiers planned entertainments for the gracious 
lady; and here Baron Steuben made the American as 
skillful as the British regular in the use of the bayonet. 

204. British leave Philadelphia for New York (1778). 
Clinton, who had taken Howe's place, hurried his army 
to New York, for he heard that the French fleet was 
coming (§201). Washington overtook this army at 
Monmouth, and but for Lee's treachery would have dealt 
them a hard blow. Lee^'' (§189) ordered a retreat just 
as his 6,000 men, trained by Steuben, were about to 
surround the British. Washington sternly ordered Lee 
to the rear, took command himself and charged with 



154 



The Struggle for Independence 



fixed bayonets. The British were checked and that 
night hastily retreated, leaving their wounded upon the 
field of battle. Thus the campaign for the Middle States 
had come to an end with the tables turned. When it 
began the British were chasing Washington out of New 
York ; now Washington was chasing them into New York. 



WINNING OUR FIRST WESTERN BOUNDARY 

205. Indian massacres. During the next three years 
occurred two horrible massacres by Indians and Tories. 

One took place in the Wyo- 
ming Valley in Pennsylvania, 
near where Wilkes-Barre'^ now 
stands. The British com- 
mander, it is said, reported 
227 scalps. The other mas- 
sacre occurred in Cherry Val- 
ley, New York. After the 
work of death was over, the 
enemy burned the village, 
drove away the cattle, and 
carried forty people into cap- 
tivity. The next year Wash- 
ington sent General Sullivan 
with 5,000 men to punish the 
Indians. Where Elmira now 
stands he completely broke their power. 

206. Kentucky in the Revolution. While living on 
the Yadkin River in Nforth Carolina, Daniel Boone 
heard the story of Kentucky's beauty — its hills and 
valleys, its forests and canebrakes full of game. Boone 
spent a winter hunting there and dodging the Indians. 
He went back and declared it a second paradise. He 




From a portrait painted by 
Chester Harding m 1819 



DANIEL BOONE 



Winning Our First Western Boundary i55 

returned to Kentucky and finally built a palisade fort, 
calling it Boonesboro. Settlers came; the Indians 
attacked Boonesboro but were driven off. During the 
Revolution Boone was in "several battles; the most 
important was that of Blue Licks (1782). Many other 
pioneers and Indian fighters built forts and helped win 
Kentucky for the Americans (§262). 

207. Tennessee in the Revolution. In the spring of 
1 771 sixteen families followed James Robertson from 
North Carolina to Tennessee. They settled in the fair 
valley of the Watauga. This settlement prospered and 
one spring (1779) Robertson with eight comrades followed 
the Wilderness Road to the Cumberland Gap. Here 
they turned southwest to a point on the Cumberland 
River, and settled "Nashboro," now Nashville.^^ This 
place they bravely defended against the Indians; for 
this Washington made Robertson a general in the army. 

Another hero of early Tennessee was John Sevier. 
Born in the Shenandoah, he too moved to the valley of 
the Watauga and became famous as an Indian fighter. 
The settlement prospered and Sevier moved to the 
Nolichucky, where he built a house with a great stone 
fireplace and large verandas. He welcomed everybody 
to his home, rich and poor alike. He led the riflemen of 
East Tennessee to the great victory at King's Mountain 
(§217). When Tennessee became a State the people 
elected him governor and reelected him until he had 
held the office for twelve years. 

208. George Rogers Clark carries our claim to the 
Mississippi (1779). To save these settlements from the 
Indians and to drive the British out of the Northwest 
Territory was the work of a bold young frontiersman, 
George Rogers Clark, then living in Kentucky. He went 



156 



The Struggle for Independence 




to Virginia and won the support of Governor Patrick 
Henry to the plan. Clark took with him 150 men, 

frontiersmen like himself. 
They wore fur caps, 
hunting shirts, buckskin 
breeches, and moccasins. 
They carried long rifles on 
their shoulders and toma- 
hawks and hunting knives 
swung from their belts. 
The little army left 
Pittsburgh, floated down 
the Ohio to where Louis- 
ville soon was to be, and 
there Clark drilled his 
soldiers. Down the river 
they went to the mouth of 
the Tennessee, hid their 
boats, and marched over- 
land to Kaskaskia — settled by the French — reaching 
it at dusk on July 4. Clark went to the fort and entered 
a hall where there was dancing. What a surprise when 
he said, "You dance under Virginia and not under 
Great Britain." The British officer, Hamilton the "hair- 
buyer ' ' as Clark called him, heard the news in Detroit and 
rushed 500 men to Vincennes, but decided not to attack 
Clark until spring. This was Hamilton's blunder. 

"I must take Hamilton or Harnilton will take me," 
said Clark. Forty or fjfty Frenchmen joined Clark and 
he set out on one of the most terrible of marches. They 
finally reached the "drowned lands of the Wabash" — 
miles and miles of muddy water up to their hips. Food 
grew scarce. Some were too weak to march and had to 



From a painting on wood by 
John Wesley Jarvia 



GEORGE ROGERS CLARK 



Irregular Fighting on Land and Sea 



157 



be carried in rude boats. The stronger sang to keep up 
the courage of the weak. They finally reached the town, 
rested, and stormed the fort. The riflemen fired through 
the portholes and drove the gunners from the cannon. 




THE GEORGE ROGERS CLARK EXPEDITION 

The result of this expedition was to make the Mississippi River the western boundary 
at the close of the RevoliUtonary War 

Hamilton surrendered, and the Stars and Stripes floated 
over "Old Vincennes." The British now held only 
Detroit. Virginia rewarded Clark's men with 300 acres 
each in southern Indiana. This section is called ' ' Clark's 
Grant." * 

IRREGULAR FIGHTING ON LAND AND SEA 

209. The British turn to plundering; Wayne captures 
Stony Point and "Light Horse Harry" Lee takes Paulus 
Hook (1779). The British had failed thus far and 
America's treaty with France (§201) had made them 



158 



The Struggle for Independence 



desperate. They turned to plundering expeditions in 
New England, New Jersey, and Virginia. 

Before Washington had finished fortifying Stony Point 
the British captured it. "Mad Anthony" Wayne was 
chosen to retake it. Twelve hundred men trained by 
Steuben (§193) charged with empty guns but with fixed 
bayonets up the steep sides of Stony Point at midnight. 
The fort was ours again. 

Paulus Hook, a British fortification in New Jersey, 




THE STORMING OF PAULUS HOOK 



frequently sent expeditions against the Jersey farmers. 
Washington selected a brilliant officer, "Light Horse 
Harry" Lee, to capture the place. With a small body 
of chosen men the fort was captured at night. 

210. The treason of Benedict Arnold. Arnold had 
proved himself a brave man (§198). Washington be- 
lieved in him but Congress had refused to promote 
him. Washington put him in command at Philadelphia 



Irregular Fighting on Land and Sea 159 

when the British left (§204). Here he lived beyond his 
means and married a charming Tory lady. Charges were 
brought against him and Washington was named to 
reprimand him. 

Burning to be revenged, Arnold asked for the command 
at West Point, the key to the Hudson. Washington 
granted it. Arnold planned to surrender it to the 
British, but the plot failed, because young Andre, whom 
the British sent to see Arnold, was arrested. Arnold 
escaped to the British, but Andre was tried and hanged 
as a spy. Arnold got as his reward, $30,000 and the 
position of general in the British army. But his last 
days were full of bitterness and sorrow. It is told of him 
that just before he died he called for his American 
uniform, saying, "May God forgive me for ever putting 
on any other!" 

211. The American navy. The Americans, of course, 
had no navy at the opening of the war. In 1775 
Congress ordered thirteen fast sailing vessels built, but 
before these were ready eight merchant vessels had 
sailed from Philadelphia to prey on British commerce. 
These were called privateers. They were privately 
owned, equipped and manned and were given authority 
by Congress to do anything a regular man-of-war 
might do. During the war hundreds of these American 
privateers were sent out. The rich British trade in 
the West Indies was their special object of attack and 
it suffered terribly. New England had many privateers. 
Nearly all the States had a few vessels, mainly for 
harbor defense. 

212. John Barry and Paul Jones. John Barry was 
an Irishman and in 1776 Congress gave him command 
of the ship "Lexington." Because of his exploits he 



i6o 



The Struggle for Independence 



was given a larger ship. One night, on the Delaware, 
he armed four boats and with muffled oars rowed to a 

British ship and boarded 
and captured her. He 
turned his attention to 
four transports, took 
II them, and carried them 
all across the river to an 
American port. In 1778 
he was given command 
of the "Raleigh" and 
finally of the "Alliance," 
named in honor of our 
alliance with France. 
Washington, when he 
became president, made 
Barry our first commo- 
dore of the navy. 

John Paul Jones was a 
Scotchman. He offered his services to Congress and was 
made a lieutenant. But he did so well that Congress 
soon made him a captain. He went after the British mer- 
chantmen, and in six weeks captured sixteen of them. 
Jones went to France and Franklin sent him across to 
England to burn and capture ships. The British said, 
"Look out for Paul Jones, the pirate!" The king of 
France gave him command of a ship of fifty cannon, the 
"Bon Homme Richard," named in honor of Franklin's 
Almanac, the Poor Richard. He sailed for England and 
met a large English ship. They fought for an hour. 
"Have you struck your colors?" asked the English 
captain. "I have not yet begun to fight," was Jones's 
reply. He lashed the ships together and they fought on. 




From a painting by Charles Wilson Pealc 
JOHN PAUL JONES 



War in the South 



i6i 



Both vessels were on fire and the "Bon Homme 
Richard" was filling with water. Captain Jones directed 
his cannon at the masts of the British man-of-war. 
Just as they were ready to fall the English captain 
struck his colors and surrendered. The victory humbled 
the "haughty mistress of the seas" and brought the little 
American navy to the attention of the world. 

WAR IN THE SOUTH 

213. Georgia overrun; the French and Americans 
defeated at Savannah (1778-1779). For nearly three 
years the South had been free from British attacks 
(§181) but it now became the scene of the final conflict. 

Savannah was the first point of attack. The British, 
nearly 4,000 strong, came from New York and Florida. 
The Americans could muster but 1,200 men, and were 

& _ : \4- r-^M^ Mr^ ^« 





THE ASSAULT AT THE BATTLE OF SAVANNAH 

defeated. The city with all its provisions surrendered. 
The British now hastened to capture Augusta and other 



l62 



The Struggle for Independeitce 




After an engraving 
by Hall 

CASIMIR PULASKI 

Pulaski was killed in the assault on the 

British works 



towns, and in ten days declared the State of Georgia 
conquered. General Ashe, who rushed with 1,500 men 

to the rescue of Augusta, met 
with defeat at Briar Creek. 
Suddenly a great French 
fleet appeared at the mouth 
of the Savannah. Then came 
Lincoln, (§198) appointed by 
Washington, and the two 
united in bombarding the 
British fortifications in Sa- 
vannah. On October 9, 1779, 
they made a terrific assault, 
but were repulsed with heavy 
loss. Here fell the brave 
Pulaski (§193), and that ster- 
ling patriot, the gallant Jasper (§ 181). The siege was 
abandoned and Georgia seemed lost to the patriots. 

214. The capture of Charleston (1780). Generals 
Clinton and Cornwallis landed an army of 8,000 men 
at Savannah, and at once began the march for Charleston. 
They avoided Fort Moultrie this time (§181). Reen- 
forcements brought' their army up to 11,000. They 
pressed the siege, and General Lincoln, with 7,000 men, 
was compelled to surrender this great city of the colonial 
South. The fall of Charleston was probably the most 
disastrous blow that had yet fallen on the patriot 
cause. The conquest of South Carolina seemed so 
complete that Clinton, taking many of his soldiers, left 
for New York. 

215. A new' kind of fighting. Marion, Sumter, 
Pickens, and Williams now found a way of fighting even 
more puzzling to the British than that of the minutemen. 



War in the South 



163 



With only small bands, often less than a hundred, they 
kept the enemy's forces in the Carolinas in constant 
terror. Armed with homemade swords, mounted on 
the fleetest horses, hiding in dense swamps or mountain 
fastnesses, they seldom slept two nights in the same 
camp. They would destroy a British camp at night and 
by dawn be in some distant hiding place; again they 
would sweep around the main British army, cutting off 
stragglers or charging pell-mell into their camp, and be 
away before the British could recover from their surprise. 




MARION SURPRISING A BRITISH CAMP 



These bands of bold patriots kept alive the spirit of 
resistance until Washington could send relief. ^^ 

216. The Battle of Camden (1780). Baron De Kalb 
was hastening to the relief of the South with 1,500 Conti- 
nentals. Washington wished General Nathanael Greene 
to take charge, but Congress sent Gates, fresh from the 
victory at Saratoga (§198). He reached Hillsboro where 
De Kalb was gathering troops. Gates rushed on to 



164 



The Struggle for Independence 



Camden. Cornwallis, too, was coming. Each general 
planned a surprise by the same route, at the same time 
— the dead of night. In the morning Cornwallis charged. 
The American militia and General Gates gave way, but 
De Kalb led his brave Maryland and Delaware Conti- 




DE KALB AND THE MARYLAND AND DELAWARE CONTINENTALS AT CAMDEN 

nentals to the charge. The enemy was checked for a 
moment but the noble De Kalb'^'' fell with eleven wounds, 
and the Continentals were nearly all made prisoners. 
The British plan of overrunning the South seemed 
sure to succeed and the patriot cause looked dark. 

WINNING BACK THE SOUTH 

217. The tide begins to turn; King's Mountain (1780). 
"It is always darkest just before the dawn." Williams 
and Marion (§215) were the harbingers of the new day. 
Williams defeated 500 British with great slaughter. A few 
days later, Marion and a handful of his troopers struck 
a blow at part of the British army, captured a number 



Winning Back the South 



165 



of men, set free 150 prisoners, and were off for their 
hiding place before the British could pursue. 







CAMPAIGN IN THE SOUTH DURING THE REVOLUTION 

The territory covered by the campaigns of Greene, Marion, Rawdon, Gales, and 

Cornwallis. The dotted lines 1778 to 1780, show the routes taken by British 

troops under Clinton from New York. 

Cornwallis, elated over recent victories, made direct 
for the "Old North State." He headed his army for 
Charlotte, where the Mecklenburg County patriots made 
7 



i66 



The Struggle for Independence 



it so warm for him that he declared he had run into a 
real "hornet's nest" (§183).^! He sent 1,200 men under 
Major Ferguson to the western highlands of North 
Carolina to gather recruits. The news of their coming 
spread beyond the mountains. The bold frontiersmen 
came riding with sprigs of evergreen in their caps. 
John Sevier of Tennessee (§207), Isaac Shelby of Ken- 
tucky, William Campbell of Virginia, and James Williams 
of South Carolina were the chosen leaders of these bands 
of backwoodsmen. 

Ferguson retreated to the top of King's Mountain. 
Up three sides of the mountain swarmed 1,000 picked 
riflemen. Ferguson's men charged with fixed bayonets, 
but each rifleman took to a bowlder or a tree; bayonets 
could do nothing against their cross fire. It came from 




■'6X. 



THE BATTLE OF KING S MOUNTAIN 



three directions. Major Ferguson and more than 200 of 
his soldiers were killed. The others surrendered. The 



Winning Back the South 



167 








From a miniature painted 
by John Trumbull 

DANIEL MORGAN 



Americans lost 28. Then these backwoodsmen returned 
as they had come, and took part no more as a body in 
the Revolution. But they 
had turned the tide at 
King's Mountain. 

218. Battle of the Cow- 
pens (1781). Washington 
now had his way and sent 
General Greene (§216) 
to measure swords with 
Cornwallis. With him was 
"Light Horse Harry" Lee^' 
(§209) and his famous regi- 
ment of cavalry. Daniel 
Morgan (§179) was already 
on the ground with the 
remnant of De Kalb's Con- 
tinentals. Greene now sent him with Colonel William 
Washington, another brave cavalry officer, to encourage 
the backwoodsmen who fought so brilliantly at King's 
Mountain. Cornwallis ordered his ablest officer, Tarleton, 
to beat Morgan. Morgan heard of Tarleton 's coming 
and took post at Cowpens in northern South Carolina. 
Pickens reenforced Morgan, who now had only 900 men 
to meet Tarleton 's 1,150. Morgan put a number of 
deadly sharpshooters in the woods on each side of the 
road. They were to retreat to the second line, composed 
of militia who were told to fire at least twice and then 
retreat behind the third line, made up of 290 Maryland 
Continentals and some Georgia and Virginia militia. 
Behind the third line were Colonel Washington's troopers. 

On came Tarleton. The first lines disturbed him not 
a little and the second fired more than twice, but finally 



i68 



The Struggle for Independence 



began to retreat. Tarleton, now scenting victory, allowed 
his men to plunge forward. They struck the steady- 
going Continentals, were thrown into confusion, and 
when Washington dashed out, 600 of Tarleton 's men 
surrendered. Tarleton was wounded in a hand-to-hand 
sword contest with Washington, '^^ but escaped. He left 






nearly 200 dead or wounded 
on the field. Tarleton had 
met his match, and Corn- 
wallis started after Morgan. 
219. General Greene's 
retreat (1781). The two 
wings of Greene's army 
started rapidly across North 
Carolina. Cornwallis was 
bent on striking Morgan 
before he joined Greene. 
The British destroyed their 
heavy baggage and made 
forced marches. It was all 
in vain. Heavy rains filled 
the streams". Cornwallis 
had to wait but Greene carried his boats on wheels and 
crossed without delay. Greene and Morgan united 
forces, retreated into Virginia, gathered recruits, and 
came back into North Carolina ready to fight. Corn- 
wallis was now more than 200 miles from his supplies. 
220. Guilford Court House (1781). CornwalHs sent 
out a proclamation, declaring that he had conquered 
North Carolina. He spoke too soon. The American 
general was ready. A battle was fought near Guilford 
Court House. Greene followed Morgan's tactics in 
placing men. They did not work so successfully, but 




From a painting by Charles Wilson Peale 
NATHANAEL GREENE 



Winning Back the South 



169 



Washington made a cavalry charge at a critical moment 
and saved the day. Greene withdrew in good order. 
The British lost nearly 600 men and the Americans 
400. Cornwallis saw that at such a rate his army 
would soon be cut to pieces. He 
refused to fight the next day, re- 
treated in all haste to the seacoast, 
and then turned toward Virginia. 

221. The British driv- 

en into Charleston and 
Savannah ( i 78 i ) . 
Greene started for South 
Carolina. The news of 
his coming once more 
stirred the hearts of the 




THE WAR IN VIRGINIA 

The dotted lines show Washington's route from New York and the route taken by 
Cornwallis, which ended in the latter's defeat at Yorktown. 

patriots. Greene ordered Marion, Sumter, and Lee to 
gather their riflemen again. He was marching toward the 
ill-fated battle field of Camden (§216). This alarmed Lord 
Rawdon, stationed there, and he boldly moved out to 



lyo 



The Struggle for Independence 




From a draning made by W. H. Brown in I7Q1 
CHARLES, EARL CORNWALLIS 



attack Greene. He found him at Hobkirk's Hill, only 
two miles away. He attacked and Greene was driven 

from the field, but still held 
his army together. Rawdon 
burned Camden and 
retreated to Monk's Comer, 
not far from Charleston. 

Greene suddenly turned 
west and marched against 
Ninety-Six, a British fortified 
post. Rawdon rushed two 
regiments to the rescue. 
Greene slipped aside and 
Rawdon burned Ninety-Six 
rather than defend it. The 
British forces were now 
driven down toward the 
coast. Greene marched his little army of 2,600 men to 
Orangeburg, but the British retreated to Eutaw Springs. 
Here was fought a hard battle. At first the Americans 
seemed to be gaining the day, but the British rallied behind 
a brick house and drove the Americans back. The next 
day the enemy was compelled to retreat to Charleston. 

In Georgia all the towns, including Augusta, were taken 
from the British until they were driven for shelter behind 
the fortifications of Savannah. Thus by skillful gener- 
alship in two and a half years Greene and his brilliant 
leaders had cleared the three States of British troops. 
Greene was raised high in the estimation of the American 
people, and the State of Georgia, testifying to his virtues, 
presented him with a great plantation. Here the ' ' Quaker 
soldier," always loving peace and hating war, spent his 
few remaining days. 



Winning Back the South 



171 



222. The Yorktown campaign begins. When Corn- 
wallis left Wilmington he marched northward through 
the "Old Dominion" and sent Arnold (§210), who had 
been plundering, back to New York. Cornwallis with 
5,000 men immediately started for Lafayette, who had 
been watching Arnold. The Americans had but half as 
many men as Cornwallis. Lafayette skillfully avoided 
a battle. Cornwallis sent Tarleton to capture Governor 
Jefferson on his plantation, Monticello, near Charlotte- 
ville. Jefferson _ ,, ^ 

barely escaped over 

the mountains. ■> j - .s>r^^>;,2Jl^lL. "'^ 

Failing to accom- 
plish much, the 
British took post 
at Yorktown to be 
within calling dis- 
tance of their fleet. 
Washington saw 
his opportunity. 
The French king 
had sent a small 
army under Count 
Rochambeau. This 

Washington now ordered to New York. He made 
Clinton believe that he was planning to attack the 
city. Then he suddenly slipped away with his army 
and was well on toward Philadelphia before any one 
knew he was going to Yorktown. How happy were 
Congress and the people of Penn's old city! The citizens 
decorated their homes with the Stars and Stripes, while 
cheering crowds thronged the streets and happy, well- 
dressed women filled the windows and threw flowers over 




WASHINGTON AND ROCHAMBEAU IN THE 
TRENCHES AT YORKTOWN. 



172 



The Struggle for Independence 



the ragged Continentals and the finely dressed French 
soldiers. "Long live Washington! He has gone to 
catch Cornwallis in his mousetrap," shouted the people. 
223. Capture of Yorktown the crowning victory (1781). 
From the head of Chesapeake Bay the French fleet 
carried the American army to Yorktown. Escape by 
land or sea was now impossible for the British. For a 
month the Americans pressed the siege. The cannon 
from the ships and the army were knocking Cornwallis' 
fortifications to pieces. Finally, Alexander Hamilton, 
only twenty-four years old, led the Americans, and 
a trusted French officer led the Frenchmen, in a night 
assault on the two outposts. They were completely 




CARRYING THE OUTER WORKS AT YORKTOWN 

successful. With his forts crumbling about him, Corn- 
wallis raised the white flag October 19, 1781. 

It was indeed a crowning victory. The British lost 



Winning Back the South 



173 




^^^^5:^2^^-- 



-^afaj.i . - 



8,000 men surrendered, and 580 killed or wounded, be- 
sides all the stores and guns (§214). 

224. The surrender scene. The American and French 
armies drew up in oppo- 
site lines. At the head of 
one was Washington while 
at the other stood Count 
Rochambeau. The British 
marched between the lines 
with slow and solemn step, 
their drums beating the old 
British march, ' ' The World 
Turned Upside Down." 
When opposite Washing- 
ton a British general lifted 
his hat and said that Corn- 
wallis was not well enough 
to deliver his sword in per- 
son. General Lincoln, com- 
pelled to surrender his sword at Charleston (§214), was 
named by Washington to receive the sword. He led the 
defeated army to an open field where it laid down its arms. 

Washington's courier rushed northward with the news. 
He reached Philadelphia at night, and the old watchman 
cried : ' ' All is well and Cornwallis taken ! ' ' The Liberty 
Bell rang the happy news and soon the streets were full 
of people shouting and shaking hands- over the glorious 
news. Unbounded rejoicing filled the hearts of all 
patriots from Maine to Georgia, and Congress marched 
to the Lutheran Church to express gratitude to God for 
the victory. 

225. Effect of the news in Europe. When the news 
reached Paris the city was in a flame of excitement, for 



From an engraved chart made 
by a French engineer. 

SIEGE OF YORKTOWN 



1 74 The Struggle for Independence 

her own sons had taken part in the capture of the British 
army. In England, people opposed to the war — among 
them some of England's greatest names — were happy 
over the result, for it meant the failure of the king's 
attempt to bring the people under his control. When 
Lord North heard the news he walked wildly about his 
room, exclaiming: "O God, it's all over; it's all over." 
He resigned, and the king was compelled to call to 
office those very friends of America who had repealed 
the Stamp Act.'^* 

226. The Treaty of Paris (1783). It was almost two 
years before the treaty of peace was signed.-" Franklin, 
Adams, Jay, and Laurens were the Americans who made 
the treaty. It not only acknowledged our independence 
but fixed our boundaries: Florida on the south, the 
Mississippi on the west, and the southern boundary of 
Canada on the north. The right of American fishermen 
on the coast of Newfoundland and in the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence was granted, and the right to use the Missis- 
sippi River was left open to both Americans and British. ^^ 

227. Washington says farewell to his comrades. 
When the British army left New York," Washington 
marched in with his weather-beaten soldiers and took 
possession. In a few days he met his generals for the 
last time. The parting from the commander they had 
followed through a long and bitter struggle was deeply 
touching. Washington simply said: "With a heart full 
of love and gratitude I now take leave of you. I most 
devoutly wish that your latter days may be as prosper- 
ous and happy as your former ones have been glorious 
and honorable. I can not come to each of you to take 
my leave, but shall be obliged if each of you will come and 
take me by the hand." In turn, he shook the hand of 



Winning Back the South 



175 



each officer and embraced him. Not a word was spoken. 
All then silently followed him to Whitehall Ferry. Hav- 
ing entered the waiting barge, which was to carry him 




WASHINGTON BIDS FAREWELL TO HIS GENERALS 

over to the Jersey shore, he turned to the company, and 
waving his hat, bade them a silent adieu. 

228. Washington's farewell to Congress. Washington 
journeyed to Philadelphia to give the proper officer 
an account of his expenses.'^* Then he took his way to 
Annapolis, where Congress was meeting, to resign his 
office as commander in chief of the American army. 
The governor, other state officers, and military officers 
and ladies and gentlemen in high standing were present. 
The galleries were full. 

Washington arose and said: "The great events on 
which my resignation depended having at length taken 
place, I have now the honor ... to surrender into 
their [Congress'] hands the trust committed to me, and 



176 



The Struggle for a Stronger Union 



to claim the indulgence of retiring from the service of 
my country." 

Washington gave a fine example of generosity in serv- 
ing his country through long years without pay. He 
hastened with Mrs. Washington to Mount Vernon, his 
beautiful home on the Potomac — where he loved so 







I'l^'-'^'-'-^^^^W?! 




va^ ri<l\lVj\ I -J; ■ Mi ^V" ■ "-■ *-A fci ■ '■ 




'-^'.: 



MOUNT VERNON, THE HOME OF WASHINGTON 



well to be — reaching there amid the greetings of friends. ^^ 
He was just in time to spend Christmas. He was now 
indeed, as every one felt, 

"The first, the last, the best, 
The Cincinnatus'^^ of the West." 



THE STRUGGLE FOR A STRONGER UNION 

THE COUNTRY IBEGINS WITH STATE SOVEREIGNTY 

229. Making the Confederation (i 776-1 781). On the 

same day that Congress' named a committee to write the 
Declaration of Independence it appointed another to 
draw up the Articles of Confederation, A loose sort of 
union already existed among the colonies. 

It was much easier for^ the colonies to separate from 




Copyright, ia03, by Raod. McNally 6c Compaa/ 



The Country Begins with State Sovereignty 177 

England than to unite among themselves. Some men 
preferred a weak government ; since they were now trying 
to escape from one tyrant they did not wish to set up 
another. 

Congress was hardly two months in making the Decla- 
ration of Independence, but it took five years to get the 
Articles of Confederation. The States owning lands to 
the westward could pay their old soldiers. Those States 
having no such lands objected to the Articles until all 
this vast region to the westward was given to the United 
States. The nation owes a debt of gratitude to Mary- 
land especially for insisting that this should be done. 
The Articles were ratified in 1781, and became the law 
of the land. 

230. How the Articles worked in practice. Congress 
had no real power. If Washington needed more troops 
Congress could only ask the States to raise them; if the 
soldiers were not sent, Washington had to get on as best 
he could. If Congress wanted money it could tax nobody ; 
if the States refused to give the money, Congress could 
issue promises to pay — that is, paper money — or it 
could borrow. This is the reason men like Washington, 
Franklin, and Robert Morris (§191) had to come forward 
with their own private means to help pay the army. 

The Confederation had no president to carry out its 
laws. The people were afraid of a real executive. Al- 
though there might be several delegates from a State, 
each State had but one vote in Congress. Rhode Island 
and Delaware were, therefore, equal in authority to 
Pennsylvania and Virginia. Delegates from nine States 
must vote for important measures before they became 
laws. If ten States were represented in Congress and 
only two voted against any such law, it was defeated. 



178 



The Struggle for a Stronger Union 



231. How the Confederation helped cure itself. The 

people had to be taught by bitter experience before 
they were ready to risk closer cooperation and a more 
effective government. The Confederation helped cure 
its own mistakes: 

I. By not being able to pay its own debts. Congress 
got but little money from the States and was compelled 
to issue "paper money," that is, to give its promise 
to pay at some future time, when it hoped to have 
silver and gold. Congress borrowed large sums from 




PAPER MONEY ISSUED BY CONGRESS DURING THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 

generous countries like Holland and France, but it had 
to use this money in other ways. The "Continental" 
or paper money fell in value until it took $10 to buy a 
pound of sugar and $1,^00 to get a barrel of flour. "Not 
worth a Continental" was a common way of saying a 
thing had no value. 

2. By not being able to protect commerce. England 
shut her ports in the West Indies against American 



The Country Begins with State Sovereignty 



179 




A PINE-TREE 
SHILLING 

In circulation 
during the Rev- 
olutionary War 



merchants and put a high duty on articles sent to Great 
Britain. Congress could not strike back by taxing 
British goods, for the Articles did not give 
it power to levy a tariff duty. Congress 
could not even regulate the trade between 
the States. This made business bad, and 
some States even taxed articles sent in 
from sister States. 

J. By being too weak to keep order. Con- 
gress could not protect itself from insult. 
Near the close of the war several hundred 
unpaid soldiers drove it from Philadelphia 
to Princeton. While at Newburgh the 
army threatened to turn against Con- 
gress, but Washington stood in the way. 

On account of business distress in all parts of the 
country, many persons were not able to pay their debts. 
Many soldiers had to let their families suffer during the 
war, but now taxes and debts must be paid. 

In Massachusetts hundreds of people rose in rebellion 
to prevent the sheriffs and the courts from collecting 
taxes and forcing the payment of debts. Daniel Shays 
was their leader (i 786-1 787). During the winter the 
State troops were called out and the men scattered or 
were captured. Congress was too weak to give aid to 
suppress this revolt and many people thought the Con- 
federation was going to break up. 

232. Working for a stronger government (1784-1787). 
Again and again Washington had urged the States to 
grant more power to Congress. When he retired he 
sent a "farewell" letter to the governors of the States. 
He declared that every patriot ought to insist "that 
there should be lodged somewhere a supreme power to 



i8o The Struggle for a Stronger Union 

regulate and govern the general concerns of the con- 
federated republic." For the next few years he was 
constantly writing and speaking for a firmer union. To 
Governor Harrison of Virginia he wrote: "An extension 
of federal powers would make us one of the wealthiest 
and happiest and most powerful nations on the globe. 
I predict the worst consequences from a half-starving, 
limping government, tottering at every step." 

Alexander Hamilton (§223) wrote in 1780 a famous 
letter on the weak points in the government and pointed 
out the remedy for them. He appealed to the people, 
declaring that we must have a vigorous government 
"if we mean to succeed in the contest and be happy 
hereafter." 

James Madison, a young Virginian, was untiring in 
his efforts to secure a stronger government. In Con- 
gress and in the legislature of Virginia he left no stone 
unturned to accomplish his purpose. 

233. The beginnings of a national land system. We 
have seen how the country both north and south of the 
Ohio River was won by the bold pioneers from the 
Carolinas and Virginia. On the basis of their charters 
many States had claims to this region. In answer to the 
demands of Maryland (§229), Virginia, which had the 
largest claim, and the other States, which had smaller 
ones, surrendered this territory to the nation. The 
surrender was complete (1802) when Georgia gave up 
her claim. The land was given to the United States 
on two conditions: 

1. That the land be "disposed of for the common 
benefit of the United States." 

2. That this region be "formed into distinct republican 
States." 



The Country Begins with State Sovereignty 



i8i 



a tract of land called the "Western 
along the southern shore of Lake 



Connecticut kept 
Reserve" running 
Erie. Virginia still 
retained Kentucky 
and two tracts of 
land north of the 
Ohio — one between 
the Miami and 
Scioto rivers to pay 
her Revolutionary 
soldiers, and the 
other in southern 
Indiana, called 
"Clark's Grant," 
as a reward for the 
brave men who 
formed Clark's ex- 
pedition (§208). 

Congress imme- 
diately surveyed 
this land and 
opened it up for 
sale. The owner- 
ship of this vast 
region was a power- 
ful bond to hold 
the Confederation 
together. 

Thomas Jefferson 
introduced into 
Congress a plan for 
the government of this territory (1784). It forbade 
slavery in this region after 1800, and in all other territory 




THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY 

The Northwest Territory — lunds north of the Ohio — and 

other lands surrendered by certain states for the 

common benefit of the Nation' 



1 82 The Struggle for a Stronger Union 

that should be given up to the national government. 
The plan was adopted by Congress, but the anti-slavery 
part was omitted. 

234. The ordinance of the Northwest Territory (1787). 
This Northwest Territory included what is now Ohio, 
Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. Very soon 
settlers, especially from New England, were ready to 
go into it. But first they wished to know whether 
slavery would be permitted there. To make this and 
other matters clear, Congress passed a new law for 
governing this territory. This is known from its date 
as the Ordinance of 1787. It is a famous document 
because (j) it laid the foundation for the government of 
our territories, (2) it prohibited negro slavery in the 
Northwest Territory, (j) it bestowed religious freedom 
on all the settlers in this region, and {4) it provided that 
"schools and the means of education shall forever be 
encouraged." 

The making of this ordinance was one of the wisest 
and one of the last acts of the Congress of the Confed- 
eration. It gave the whole country a common interest 
in the Northwest Territory and it had enormous influence 
upon the future of the nation. 

235. Virginia and Maryland meet (1785). Madison 
(§232) was the moving spirit in bringing Maryland and 
Virginia to talk over trade matters on the Potomac and 
Chesapeake Bay. Delegates met at Washington's own 
town of Alexandria and adjourned to pay honor to Wash- 
ington at Mount Vernon. While talking over the matter 
with Washington they came to see clearly that other 
States would be affected by any regulations they might 
make. Hence it was decided to call a great "trade con- 
vention" of all the States to meet at Annapolis. 



The Constitutional Convention 183 

236. The trade convention at Annapolis (1787). Only 
five States sent delegates. New England sent not a man 
and Maryland was not there. But three great men, 
Hamilton (§232) Dickinson (§1 74) and Madison were there. 
This convention saw that any reg- 
ulation it might adopt would have 
no central authority to carry it 
out. It was useless to adopt 
rules for thirteen governors to LTJnite or 




mmm 



carry out. It therefore sent forth franklin's motto 



.. r. . , . The pieces of the snake represent 

a call tor a national convention the colonics 

for the purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation. 
Some of the States and Congress did not favor such 
a convention. Washington's friends urged him not to 
attend, for they were afraid this meeting too would fail. 
They did not want the great name of Washington 
connected with a failure. But while the people were 
hesitating. Shays' rebellion (§231) broke in all its fury 
over Massachusetts and threatened to spread into other 
states. Men saw they must now choose between anarchy 
and a stronger central government.*^^ Congress now 
openly favored a convention, and all the states except 
Rhode Island sent delegates. 

THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION 

237. The leading men of the convention (1787). From 
May until September this convention sat behind closed 
doors in Independence Hall, Philadelphia. The fifty-five 
men who took part in the work of the convention were 
the best the States could send. Twenty-nine were 
college graduates. Three had been in the Stamp Act 
Congress, more in the Continental Congress, several 
had signed the Declaration of Independence, and many 



1 84 



The Struggle for a Stronger Union 



had won distinction in the struggle with England. 
Washington, its most trusted member, was made 

president of the conven- 
tion. Franklin, philos- 
opher and statesman, 
was the oldest man, and 
Hamilton the youngest. 
Madison, the greatest 
political scientist there, 
was called the "Father 
of the Constitution. ' ' No 
nation could find four 
better men for the task 
before them. 

Other men, hardly less 
able, were there : Dickin- 
son of Delaware, Pat- 
erson of New Jersey, 
Sherman of Connecticut 
(§238), Gouverneur and 
Robert Morris and James Wilson of Pennsylvania, the 
Pinckneys and John Rutledge of South Carolina, King and 
Gerry of Massachusetts, Governor Randolph and George 
Mason of Virginia, and Luther Martin of Maryland. 

Some very famous men were not there : John Adams 
was minister to Great Britain, and Thomas Jefferson 
was minister to France. John Hancock, Samuel Adams, 
Patrick Henry, and Richard Henry Lee did not favor 
such a convention. 

238. The Virginia Plan of a constitution. The del- 
egates had been told plainly by the States to amend 
the Articles of Confederation. The majority, however, 
decided to make a new constitution. This was a bold 




From a drawing by Queuedey, after a painting 
by Chretien. Used by special permission of 
Charles Scribncr's Sons 

GOUVERNEUR MORRIS 



The Constitutional Convention 



i8S 




After an etching by Roaenthal 
CHARLES PINCKNEY 



step, and some of the mem- 
bers feared that the people 
would reject their work. 
But Washington appealed to 
them, saying, "If to please 
the people we offer what we 
ourselves disapprove, how 
can we afterward defend our 
work? Let us raise a stand- 
ard to which the wise and the 
honest can repair; the event 
is in the hand of God." 

The Virginia Plan^^ proposed 
that Congress should have 
two houses, an upper and a 
lower, and that in both houses the States should be 
represented according to population. This arrangement 
gave the larger States a great advantage. The smaller 

States therefore favored the 
New Jersey Plan, which revised 
the Articles of Confederation 
in some parts. The debates 
grew warm and feeling ran high 
until Sherman and Ellsworth, 
members from Connecticut, 
brought forward what has 
since been known as the ' ' Con- 
necticut Compromise." This 
plan provided that each State 
have the same number of 
senators and that in the 
lower house the ' number of 
ROGER SHERMAN rcprescntatives be according to 




From a portrait painted by ThoIuaH 
Hicics* after Ralph Esrle 



1 86 The Struggle for a Stronger Union 

population. This compromise pleased both parties and 
proved a happy solution of a hard problem. 

239. The slave and free States compromise also. 
Another problem facing the convention was : Shall slaves 
as well as free men be counted when deciding the number 
of representatives and the amount of direct taxes among 
the States? The slave States said ^^es for representatives 
but no for direct taxes. The free States said no for 
representatives and yes for direct taxes. It was clear 
that each party was standing firmly for its own interest. 
James Madison then proposed this solution: that three- 
fifths of the slaves should be counted in making up the 
number of representatives and in dividing the direct 
taxes among the States. This plan was finally accepted. 

Some of the States, southern as well as northern, were 
opposed to bringing slaves from Africa, but South Carolina 
and Georgia declared they needed more slaves to till their 
rice fields. There was also a disagreement as to the ma- 
jority by which Congress could pass trade laws. It was 
finally agreed that the African slave trade might go on 
twenty years, and that Congress should pass trade laws 
by an ordinary majority, but never lay a tax on exports. 

240. The executive department. The Confederation 
had no head, and the convention called for a president 
as strong as the governors of the different States. A 
few delegates wished to elect him for life. Some 
wanted him to serve during good behavior but more 
were in favor of one term for seven years. Toward 
the end of the convention they decided upon a term 
of four years with the opportunity of reelection."^ 

The convention discussed for a long time the plan of 
electing the president. They finally "invented" a plan 
which they thought would obtain the best man in the 



The Constitutional Convention 187 

United States for the office. Each State was to select 
a number of men called electors. These were to meet 
on a given day, each group in its own State, and vote for 
two men. It was intended that these electors should 
discuss the merits of the different men. But since Wash- 
ington's time political parties have come into play and 
have changed all this by naming their own candidates, 
for whom the electors vote. So, in fact, we know who 
is to be president as soon as the electors are chosen. 

241. Providing for national courts. The Confederation 
did not provide a national court. The people of one 
State tried in another felt the need of a great national 
court which would stand above all State courts in the 
matter of justice. The convention decided that the 
judges of such a court should be appointed to office by 
the president with the approval of the Senate^ and 
should serve during good behavior. In this way it was 
intended that the judges should be as independent as 
possible of political parties. 

242. Three departments of government. The conven- 
tion thus made three great departments of government: 
the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. But it 
was their purpose to separate the departments so com- 
pletely that none would be able to encroach upon the 
rights of the others. If the president wants a law 
passed he cannot go into Congress, introduce a bill and 
debate and vote, as the British premier does; he must 
tell some congressman what he wants done. He may or 
may not get what he wants. 

If a law is needed some member of Congress introduces 
a "bill" describing the law. The bill may be changed 
after being debated. Then, if a majority vote to pass it, 
it goes to the other house, where it may be debated again. 



ss 



The StrKi^f^lc for a Stro)i!:cr Cnioii 



11" this hinisi> alst) jkissos tlio bill, it j^cvs to tho prcsiilcnt 
for his sij;tiatinv. If ho sisMis it \hc lull Ihh'cmhos a "law." 




V \U\\ vM- \H\ SlCNAli: vUVMHlK IN AN l.AULV PAY 

If ho voioos it. it i^oos baok to tho hoiiso where it first 
tcx^k its nso. If both houses then pass it by a two-thirds 
vote, the president must earry it out as he would any other 
law. i^Constitution. Art. i. See. 7 "I 

If ai\y oiti/oii ftx^ls that the law works him hanii. he 
n\ay brinj;; the question before a national oourt and the 
judges will decide whether the law was made as the Con- 
stitution pnnndes. If the eourt so decides, the law must 
stand; but if it decides that the law is contrary to the 
Constitution, then the law is dead. 

24},. Chimging the Constitution by amending it. The 
cvnvoniion was wnso enough to sec that as the country* 
grew ;md as the |^H.H.iple were taught by experience, they 
might wish to change the Constitution. Two wa3*s were 
pro\-ided by whicli this could be done : 



The People Accept the Constitution 189 

J. Amendments may be proposed in Congress as may 
any other bill. If they are passed in both houses by a two- 
thirds vote the amendments are sent by Congress to the 
State legislatures or State conventions. If they are 
approved by three-fourths of the States the changes are 
added to the Constitution and become a part of it. 

2. If two-thirds of the State legislatures request it, 
Congress must call a national convention, which may 
propose amendments. Such amendments are then sent 
to the States and voted on as before. This method has 
never been used. (Constitution, Art. V.) 

THE PEOPLE ACCEPT THE CONSTITUTION 

244. Opposition to the Constitution. The people did 
not know at first just what kind of constitution the 
convention had made. Some feared too much power 
had been given to the nation and that the States would 
suffer. Others feared the president would grow into a 
king, and still others saw no "Bill of Rights "•''< in it — 
that is, no part which promised to protect life, liberty, 
and property; still others wanted to keep the Confed- 
eration with its easy-going ways.''"^ 

245. How the Constitution was ratified. When the 
time came to elect delegates to the State conventions to 
accept or reject the Constitution, there was great excite- 
ment and much discussion for and against it. Writers 
filled the newspapers with arguments or published pam- 
phlets. The most important writing for the Constitution 
was a series of papers called The Federalist, written by 
Hamilton, Madison, and Jay. The most important 
documents against the Constitution were the Letters of a 
Federal Farmer, written by Richard Henry Lee. In 
almost every state there were great men opposed to the 



IQO 



The Struggle for a Stronger Union 



Constitution, or not enthusiastic in its support. The 
friends of the Constitution had no easy task before them. 
Exciting contests occurred, but among the States 
none were more prompt than the smaller ones. Dela- 
ware won the honor 
not only of being first 
to enter the new union 
but of doing so by a 
unanimous vote. New 
Jersey was the third 
State to come under 
the "New Roof," as 
the Constitution was 
called, and she also 
voted unanimously. 
Georgia, far down the 
coast, joined the new 
union by an undivided 
vote. Tremendous 
battles over the Con- 
stitution occurred in 
Pennsylvania, Massa- 
chusetts, Virginia, and 
New York. Ten amendments were added to the Con- 
stitution in the first Congress after its adoption. These 
are sometimes spoken of as the "Bill of Rights." 

246. How Philadelphia celebrated the victory (1788). 
It had been agreed that the new Constitution should go 
into effect if nine or more States accepted it. There- 
fore when nine States had ratified it, the friends of the 
"New Roof" resolved to show their joy. Bells rang, 
cannon boomed, bonfires blazed, and processions filled 
the streets. 




CELFBRATING THE RATIFICATION OF THE CON- 
STITUTION IN NEW YORK CITY 
The "Ship of State" was drawn on floats through the 
crowded streets 



The People Accept the Constitution 



191 



But nowhere were the people happier than in the 
City of Brotherly Love. The good news had come 
that the "Old Dominion" had been the tenth State ^^ 
to ratify the Constitution. This caused the people of 
Philadelphia to celebrate the Fourth of July in grand 
style. Salutes were fired at sunrise, and the bells of 
the city rang their noisy welcom.e as 5,000 people 
gathered in line for the parade. "Every trade, every 
business, every occupation of life was represented." 
When the procession had ended, James Wilson, a great 
friend of the Constitution in the convention, and one 
of its greatest defenders in the ratifying convention, 
delivered an oration. The 
rejoicing continued far 
into the night. 

This was a fitting cele- 
bration of the greatest 
event of the American 
Revolution by the city 
that had witnessed the 
meeting of the First Con- 
tinental Congress, the 
Declaration of Independ- 
ence, and the Constitu- 
tional Convention. 

While the people are 
congratulating themselves 
over the making of the 
Constitution and are busy 
selecting electors to choose our first president, it will 
be well to take a closer look at the condition of the 
country as it faces the future. Great changes have 
taken place during the troubled years of the Revolution. 




From the portrait painted by James Peale 
JAMES WILSON 



Period of the Growth of the Nation 



THE FEDERALIST PARTY IN POWER 

THE CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY IN 1790 

247. Growth of population during the Revolution. 

During the struggle for independence the number of 
people in the United States increased almost 1,000,000. 
The population was now 3,900,000, or just about as 
great as that of the State of Texas in 1910. 

Most of the people lived east of the Allegheny Moun- 
tains. A few French and Spaniards were scattered along 




^^ Area settled in 1790 
[■■■:■:.■■:■'] Area settled between 
l^^i^nQO and 1800 

Population under 2 pereq. nii. pot taken into 



THE GROWTH OF SETTLED AREA IN I 790 AND 18OO 

the Mississippi. But the towns were not many, for when 
Washington became president most of the people were 
living on farms. When the people were first counted, 

192 



The Condition of the Country in Tjgo 



193 



in 1790, Philadelphia had but 42,000, New York was 
second in size with 33,000, Boston had 18,000, and 
Charleston 16,000; Baltimore contained 13,000. 

248. The Great West. Between the Alleghenies and 
the Mississippi was a wonderful region known as the 




EMIGRANtS LEAVING FOR THE WEST 

"West." It was chiefly the home of wild animals and 
the Indian. Little groups of people were Hving in 
Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri and the Northwest Ter- 
ritory. French and Spaniards were found at Mobile, 
Pensacola, Biloxi, and New Orleans. People were drawn 
to the West by stories of its beauty and the richness of 
its soil. Exciting adventures waited the settler with his 
long rifle, pack horses, and emigrant wagons. 

People seeking the Great West from the North made 
their way to the Ohio region by going through western 
New York to the Western Reserve, or from Philadelphia 
they crossed the mountains to Pittsburgh, on the Ohio. 



194 



The Federalist Party in Power 



The people of Maryland and Virginia also aided in mak- 
ing Pittsburgh the most bustling town west of the moun- 
tains. Farther south the hardy sons of Virginia and 
North Carolina had crossed the mountains into Ken- 
tucky and Tennessee by way of the Cumberland Gap 
and Boone's Wilderness Road. From South Carolina a 
large number of people moved into Georgia and the 
region to the westward. 

249. Industrial conditions. The old Confederation was 
not able to protect foreign or home commerce from 
unjust laws (§231). But. in spite of this, ship captains 
loaded their vessels with furs and fish, or took cargoes 

of grain and flour from the 
Middle States ; tobacco from 
Maryland and Virginia; 
pitch, tar, and turpentine 
from North Carolina, or 
rice and indigo from South 
Carolina and Georgia, and 
sailed for the ports of the 
West Indies or for Europe. 
Farming was still carried 
on everywhere. Because of 
soil and climate it paid 
least in New England, bet- 
ter in the Middle States, 
and best in the South. The 

Fromancngravingby J. W.Steele people Stlll farmed and 

manufactured as in colonial 
But the new 




SAMUEL SLATER 
Slater carried, in memory, the machinery of the 
mill he was not permitted to take from England A^^c ( § rnf)) 



age in manufacturing had already reached America. In 
1790 Samuel Slater, an Englishman, started a mill for 
cotton-spinning at Pawtucket, Rhode Island. 



The Condition of the Country in ijgo 



195 



250. How people traveled in 1790. Trade and travel 
between cities and towns, or between States, was slow 
and difficult. Ocean and river furnished the most pleas- 
ant trips either for business or for pleasure. The people 
had still to be content with the sailing vessel and flat- 
boat. But before the new century came in, John Fitch 
on the Delaware and William Longstreet on the Savan- 
nah were experimenting with steamboats. 

Travel inland was by the saddle hofse or the stage- 
coach. Regular routes ran 



between the larger places. 
One ran from Boston to New 
York and on to Philadelphia. 
Another road from eastern 
Virginia touched Norfolk, 
skirted the Dismal Swamp, 
ran to Edenton, Beaufort, 
Wilmington, Georgetown, 
and on to Charleston. A 
government courier from 
Richmond to the Missis- 
sippi could hardly make 
the journey even in good 
weather under two months. 
Farmers west of the mountains found trade with the 
east slow and expensive. More and more they built big 
barges, loaded them with corn, bacon, and cattle, and 
floated them down the Ohio, the Cumberland, and the 
Tennessee to the Mississippi and on to New Orleans. 

But Spain held the mouth of the Mississippi, and 
charged these western farmers high duties or seized their 
boats and sent them home to tell the story to the 
hardy backwoodsmen. The backwoodsmen threatened 




RAPID TRAVELING BY STAGECOACH 



196 



The Federalist Party in Power 



vengeance against the Spaniards. The United States 
gave the settlers but little aid. The Spaniards sent their 
agent with his pockets full of gold, but the hardy 
pioneers wanted justice and not Spanish gold (§276). 
Virginia now formed Kentucky into a separate State 
(1789) and Spain gave our western traders the free use 
of the Mississippi River by treaty (1795). 

251. Social life, education, and culture. The Ameri- 
can Revolution reduced to poverty thousands of families. 
It drove many of the Tories (§186) out of this country, 



/s -^ /nf-^rp^-^'y^ry^^ ''""'" "^""^ Jx-ps^^ __ 





CI II tl 

^,^^6cau£oit A 
' ImuigtPU Wy 

nY \ \ X^ ^ ^^' V 

^f J \ A V \ >[30eoigctowu . Y 

Icstou w 

■'•'■•'t'hoz |)'ji?''V 

^^ ^ GVLF OF MEX lL-n % 





Early Post Roads 
Boone's Wilderness Road 
Robertson's Trail 



EARLY TRAILS AND POST ROADS OVER WHICH THE 
PIONEERS TR.WELED WESTW.^RD 

and left the people nearer a common level. In the vil- 
lages and on the farms they still lived in the simple 
manner of colonial days (§114). 



The Condition of the Country in 17 go 197 

The Americans knew each other better after the war. 
This grew out of sending soldiers to the North or to the 
South to aid in the great campaigns. The Revolution 
made great leaders who stirred the people to think by 
their eloquent speeches or by their wise writings. News- 
papers increased in numbers, but the people had to depend 
largely on letters for news. 

The Revolution broke up schools, hindered students 
from going to college, made the country poorer, and 
thus checked education for young people. Public schools 
outside cities and towns hardly existed, and even the 
best of them were not to be compared to the schools of 
our day. To us the early schoolhouses with their hard 
benches, poor light and heat, and bare walls would not 
seem very inviting. Yet these conditions did not hinder 
hard study, for the rod was freely used to inspire it. 

252. Religion and morality. The war tended to break 
down the bitter prejudice of religious bodies and to bring 
them closer together. Virginia voted in favor of religious 
equality (1786) and ceased to support by taxes the Eng- 
lish Church. The people of the United States declared 
in favor of religious freedom in the very first amendment 
to the Constitution. (Constitution, Amendments, Art. I.) 

But there was little sympathy for the unfortunate 
and the criminal classes. In many States a large number 
of crimes were still punishable by death and men were cast 
into prison because they were unable to pay their debts. 

The jails were so poorly kept that even able-bodied 
prisoners soon lost their health. There were no asylums 
nor reformatories, and insane people and paupers had to 
be cared for at home or be sent to the public jail. 

253. Slavery. Negro slavery had existed in all the 
colonies. But the Revolution laid great emphasis upon 



iqS 



The Federalist Party in Power 



^<K 




THE ORIGINAL COTTON GIN 



liberty and the rights of man, and when the colonies 
became States they soon began to free their slaves. By 
1790 all New England and Pennsylvania had done so, and 

New York and New Jersey 
followed a little later. 

In the South many 
voices were raised against 
slavery. No one believed 
it was to be permanent. 
No men in the Constitu- 
tional Convention took a 
stronger stand against 
slavery than the men from 
Virginia. The Quakers in 
the South as well as in 
the North were decided 
opponents of slavery. 
254. The cotton gin. In 1793 a Yankee school teacher, 
Eli Whitney by name, was living at the home of 
Mrs. Nathanael Greene (§221) not far from Savannah, 
Georgia. In talking with planters he learned the diffi- 
culty of separating the cotton seeds from the lint. One 
man could separate only five or six pounds a day. 
Whitney had an inventive mind, and soon turned out the 
cotton gin. It proved very successful, for it could 
separate from 300 to 1,000 pounds per day. 

Cotton raising now became a profitable business in 
the South, and negro slaves were in great demand on 
the cotton plantations. As the demand for them in- 
creased they grew in number. So year by year it 
became harder to free them. Thus the cotton gin built 
up a great industry, but it also helped to make the 
slavery problem harder to solve. 



The Beginnings of Political Parties 



199 



THE BEGINNINGS OF POLITICAL PARTIES 

255. The first national election (1789). Not all men 

voted in 1789, for only those who held property were 
permitted to do so. The election was not very exciting, 
for there were no campaign speeches, no torchlight pro- 
cessions, and no booming of cannon. All the electors 
voted for Washington, and he became president. John 
Adams had received the next highest number of votes and 
became vice-pres- 
ident. (Constitu- 
tion, Art.II. §1,^3.) 

256. Washington 
hailed as presi- 
dent. All the way 
from Mount Ver- 
non to New York, 
Washington was 
made to feel that 
he was greatly be- 
loved by all classes. 
Men, women, and 
children gathered 
along the route to 
see their great 
leader and to give 
him their bless- 
ing. At Alexan- 
dria his neighbors 
feasted him. Wash- 
ington made a 
touching speech. In Baltimore he passed amid the 
shouts of people who were his friends and neighbors. In 
Philadelphia they decorated with cedar and laurel, with 




WASHINGTON ON HIS WAY TO THE INAUGURATION 



200 



The Federalist Party in Power 



liberty caps and triumphal arches. There was ringing 
of bells, firing of cannon, and the illumination of the 
buildings and the streets of the city. 

But nowhere was he more deeply touched than at 
Trenton. Over the bridge crossing the Assanpink 
the women had erected a triumphal arch resting on 
thirteen pillars. On the arch were these words: "The 
Defender of the Mothers will be the Protector of the 
Daughters." Above all was a great dome bearing the 
words: "To Thee Alone." As Washington passed under 
the arch maidens came to meet him and to strew flowers 
at his feet. What memories Trenton must have recalled 
(§190)! Foreign and home warships and land batteries 



■'-^i 



fired salutes as 
Washington's boat 
approached the New 
York shore. From 
shore to shore of 
New York Bay 
thousands of people 
in hundreds of boats 
shouted and sang. 
Congressmen and 
citizens, and officers 
of the State and city 
escorted the Presi- 
dent to the house 
in which he was to 
live for a time. 
257. The first in- 
auguration (April 30, 1789). Standing in the balcony of 
Old Federal Hall, Washington with his hand upon the 
Bible, took the oath of office of president of the United 




THE INAUGURATION OV WASHINGTON 



The Beginnings of Political Parties 



20 1 



States as given in the Constitution. (Art. II, §1.) "He 

was dressed in deep brown with metal buttons with 

an eagle on them, white stockings, a bag and sword." 

His hand trembled as he 

read his inaugural address, 

for he was blazing the way 

along a road no man had 

yet trod. War was old, and 

he had learned the way, 

but making a republic was 

a new task.'^'^ 

258. Making great ap- 
pointments. Congress was 
already meeting when 
Washington was inaugu- 
rated. He named four 
famous men to be his ad- 
visers: Thomas Jefferson, 
the man who knew every- 
thing and could do most 
things, was appointed secretary of state; Alexander 
Hamilton, young and brilliant, was made secretary of the 
treasury; Henry Knox, a favorite general, was set over 
the army and navy; and Edmrnnd Randolph, late governor 
of Virginia, was selected for attorney-general. These 
men were Washington's "cabinet," a term not found in 
the Constitution. He talked with each one separately 
and sometimes took each one's written advice, but 
he seldom called the four together for their joint advice. 

The third great department of government was put in 
motion when John Jay, (§226), with the blood of the 
Huguenots in his veins, was named for chief justice of 
the Supreme Court. (Constitution, Art. Ill, §1.) 




From the portrait painted by John Trumbull 
ALEXANDER HAMILTON 



202 The Federalist Party in Power 

259. Hamilton raises the credit of the United States. 

The United States, for that time, was deeply in debt. 
We owed France and Holland more than $11,500,000, 
and to Americans more than $42,000,000. The debts of 
the States reached $21,500,000. The Confederation had 
not been able to pay these debts, and people believed 
they never would be paid. 

But Hamilton, young and enthusiastic, went to work 
to pay every cent. He proposed and Congress passed the 
following: (/) A tax on foreign goods imported. (2) 
The Funding Bill, providing a way for paying the national 
debt. (3) The Assumption Bill, arranging for payment 
of the State war debts. This last measure was passed 
only after the agreement between Hamilton and Jefferson 
that northern votes were to aid in locating the capital on 
the Potomac, after a ten years' stay in Philadelphia, if 
southern votes would come to the rescue of the Assump- 
tion Bill. (4) A law creating the United States Bank 
(1791). Here Jefferson and Hamilton split. Washington 
took the written opinion of each, then signed the bank 
bill. (5) An Excise Law, taxing distilled liquors. This 
law caused an uprising in Western Pennsylvania which 
is often called the Whisky Rebellion *^^('i794). 

260. Results of Hamilton's measures. Trade revived, 
and people who had hidden their money brought it forth 
and put it in business. The men supporting Hamilton's 
plans were called Federalists. They believed in a strong 
national government, and in reading the Constitution 
liberally or loosely. They were accused of trying to turn 
the Republic into a monarchy. But many men really 
became alarmed at Hamilton's work. They feared the 
national government would take powers belonging to the 
States, and they stood for reading the Constitution 



Peopling the Great West 203 

strictly. Jefferson was their leader. They were called 
Republicans then but finally were called Democrats. 

PEOPLING THE GREAT WEST 

261. The growing West. Before the War of the Revo- 
lution, in the early days of the quarrel between England 
and her colonies, white men were pushing westward over 
the mountains. Hardy hunters brought back wonderful 
tales of the beauty and fertility of Kentucky and Tennes- 
see. This marked the beginning of that mighty wave 
of people who crossed rivers broader than the Kentucky 
and the Tennessee, who climbed mountains higher than 
the Alleghenies, until the Pacific was reached. Today 
forty-eight States answer the roll call of the nation. 

262. The settlement of Kentucky. Into this region 
came Daniel Boone, hunter and pioneer (1769). He 
belonged to that throng of Scotch-Irish who moved 
through the mountain valleys from Pennsylvania to the 
Carolinas. He had heard wonderful stories of Kentucky, 
"a land of running waters, of groves and glades, of prairies 
and canebrakes." He listened, too, to tales of buffalo, 
bear, deer, and of great flocks of wild turkeys. 

Daniel Boone spent nearly two years hunting in Ken- 
tucky, exploring the country, and noting its beauties. 
He was soon after employed to cut a road through the 
"wilderness" from North Carolina through Cumberland 
Gap into Kentucky. On the Kentucky River he built 
Fort Boonesboro, into which friends and families moved 
in 1775; but the year before a hardy pioneer, James 
Harrod, had built a fort on the present site of Harrods- 
burg. Over the Wilderness Road, with giant forests 
on each side, men, women, and children poured in great 
numbers into both Kentucky and Tennessee. Women 



204 



The Federalist Party in Power 



and children were usually on horseback, while men and 
boys on foot looked after the cows and sheep and kept a 
sharp lookout for Indians. A band of these Kentucky 
pioneers were busy building a town when the news came 
of the first battle of the Revolution (§176). They 
hastened to name their town Lexington, (1775) in honor 
of the men who fought and fell in that event. 

From the beginning this great region had belonged 
to Virginia and now, in the very year of American inde- 
pendence, she named it Kentucky County. Governor 
Patrick Henry gave George Rogers Clark authority to 
attack "Old Vincennes" on the Wabash, the most im- 
portant British post in the Ohio Valley. Clark, with his 
little army and a few families, floated down the Ohio 



^f'' 







From an old print 



A ;PIONEER STOCKADE 

These cabins marked the site of Ihe present city of Lexington 



from Pittsburgh. He stopped at the Falls of the Ohio to 
rest his men, and here the families began the settlement 
of the present city of Louisville (1778). 



Peopling the Great West 



205 



Kentucky County grew so rapidly that at the first 
census it contained over 73,000 people (1790). In 1792 
it entered the new republic as the fifteenth State, Vermont 







"(^ktfib. 








—-■:Jfi. _..., 



FIRST SETTLEMENT OF LOUISVILLE 

Block house and log cabins on Corn Island 1778 

having been admitted the year before. The population of 
Kentucky grew by. leaps and bounds. In 1800, just 
eight years after admission as a State, it was trebled, being 
over 220,000, and in the next ten years it nearly doubled, 
being over 406,000. This great flood of people carried 
into Kentucky from Virginia the young and brilliant 
Henry Clay. Soon his great voice was heard in the 
halls of Congress, where for more than forty years his 
eloquence swayed its destinies. In Kentucky, not far 
apart, were born Abraham Lincoln and Jefferson Davis. 
263. The rise of Tennessee. As early as 1754 a band 
of -North Carolinians moved into what is now Tennessee, 
but the Indians drove them out. A few years later a 
fort was built on the Little Tennessee; this time the 
Indians massacred the frontiersmen (1760) (§154). But 
nothing could keep back the bold pioneers. While Boone 



2o6 



The Federalist Party in Power 




was still visiting Kentucky his friend Captain William 
Bean built his cabin home on the Watauga in eastern 

Tennessee (§207). Soon 
after, settlements were 
made on the Holston and 
Nolichucky rivers. 

James Robertson eariy 
came to Watauga (1770) 
from North Carolina, and 
John Sevier, a fine-spir- 
ited Huguenot, arrived 
from Virginia. Both took 
part in forming the 
Watauga Association 
(1772). This was the 
first agreement for 
government based on a 
written document formed 
west of the Alleghenies 
by men of American blood. These settlements belonged 
to North Carolina; she made them into the "District 
of Washington" (1776), named in honor of the new 
commander in chief. The next year the name of Wash- 
ington County was given to the whole of what is now 
Tennessee. 

James Robertson led a body of settlers through the 
dense forests to the Cumberland River, to the site of 
what is now the flourishing city of Nashville, the capital 
of Tennessee. The pioneers of Tennessee gave their 
lives freely for American independence, not only in fight- 
ing the British but in keeping down the Indians. It was 
their courage and skill, led by Sevier and Shelby, that 
aided in crushing the British at King's Mountain (§217). 



'it ■'"' 

After an engraving from a miniature 
JOHN SEVIER 
This daring Indian fighter was familiarly 
knoivn as "Nolichucky Jack" 



Peopling the Great West 



207 



Differences with North Carolina led these same bold 
men to form the State of Franklin and call their great 
leader John Sevier to be governor (i 784-1 788). North 
Carolina again took control of this region, gave it to 
the new republic, and Tennessee came into the Union as 
the sixteenth State (1796). Sevier was three times 
elected governor of the State of Tennessee. The riflemen 
of this State, led by her adopted son, Andrew Jackson, 
formed the heart of that frontier army that in 18 15 won 
at New Orleans the greatest victory of the War of 1 8 1 2 . 

264. Ohio, the first state out of the old Northwest 
(1803). Ohio had been under three flags: French, 
British, and American. It was also the first child of 
the Ordinance of 1787. General Putnam, with veterans 
from Connecticut, made the first settlement at Marietta 
(1788). Cincinnati was founded in the same year. Here 







From an old print -'- — ''^^^ " 

FORT WASHINGTON, CINCINNATI, IN 1 787 
This fort was built to protect the Northwestern settlers against the Indians 

Fort Washington gave protection to the stragglers of 
St. Clair's army, defeated by the Indians (1790). After 
defeating them in turn, "Mad Anthony" Wayne made 



2o8 The Federalist Party in Poiver 

the treaty of Greenville (1795). Man}^ soldiers hastened 
to settle Virginia's reservation around Chillicothe (1796). 
Connecticut soldiers settled Cleveland in the Western 
Reserve (1796). When Ohio was admitted her people 
numbered a few more than 40,000, but in seven years 
they had grown to 230,000. Ohio shares with Virginia 
the honor of being the ' ' mother of presidents ' ' : five came 
from the State and two others were born there. 

THE NEW NATION FACES NEW PROBLEMS 

265. Relations with France; proclamation of neu- 
trality (1793). The common people of France, after long 
suffering at the hands of their rulers, rose in their fury, 
beheaded their king and queen, abolished the aristocracy, 
and set up a republic.**^ War soon followed with coun- 
tries in which the governments did not approve the acts 
of the French people. England was one of these. Some 
Englishmen thought the French revolution a fine thing, 
but most of them feared it would go too far. In America 
many favored France, but some did not. France sent 
Gen^t to this country to get help and to be her minister. 

Washington talked with his cabinet, then sent forth a 
document declaring that the United States would not take 
sides with either France or England. Genet was furious, 
and accused Washington of favoring kings. Was not 
France doing as we had done ' Had she not sent her men 
and money to our aid ? Was not England our old enemy ? 
Those who took the French side praised Genet, wore 
French colors, and called each other "citizen" instead of 
"Mr." Greatly puffed up, Genet called on the people to 
oppose Washington's proclamation. This was going a step 
too far, and they turned to Washington's support. Genet's 
usefulness was ended. Washington demanded his recall. ''° 



The New Nation Faces New Problems 



209 



266. Jay's treaty with England (1794). Ever since 
the treaty of peace (§ 226) England had refused to give 
up certain western ports. On the sea she had captured 
our vessels carrying food supplies to France. We 
claimed that "neutral ships made neutral goods," but 
Britain "denied 
this. She even 
went so far as to 
stop our ships 
and seized some 
of our sailors, 
claiming that 
they were born 
in England and 
therefore were 
subjects of Great 
Britain. "Once 
an Englishman 
always an Eng- 
lishman" she 

said. We asserted that all aien have a right to change 
their citizenship. 

To avoid war, Washington sent John Jay (§258) to 
London to make a treaty with Great Britain. But he 
made a poor treaty. It restricted our trade with the 
West Indies; and it said nothing about stopping our 
ships and seizing our sailors. The Republicans were 
furious against it. From Maine to Georgia they either 
burned Jay in effigy or denounced that treaty. . Hamilton 
was stoned at his New York home for defending the 
treaty. Washington was blamed for signing Jay's treaty. 
But Washington and the Senate saw they must accept 
it or go to war. We did not go to war. 




STONING H.\MILTON FOR DEFENDING JAY S TREATY 

After being struck on the forehead by a stone, Hamilton 

calmly said to the crowd: "If you use such 

striking arguments, I must retire" 



2IO 



The Federalist Party in Power 



267. Washington retires; his farewell address (1797). 

For over forty years Washington had been in the pubhc 
eye. He had been with Braddock, in the First Continen- 
tal Congress, commander in chief during eight years 
of war, president of the Constitutional Convention, and 
now, at the end of eight years as the first president of the 
United States, was returning to Mount Vernon more 
fully trusted and deeply loved than any other man in 
the nation. 

He could have been president a third time, but refused. 
He gave to the people his famous farewell address, a 
document full of patriotic wisdom: "Citizens by birth 
or choice of a common country, that country has a right 
to your affections. . . . Let me now warn you in the 
most solemn manner against the baneful effects of party 
spirit." He died in 1799, mourned by the American 




LAFAYETTE VISITS MOUNT VERNON ONE YEAR AFTER THE WAR 



people. Great honor was done to his memory in Europe, 
including England. His fame has grown with the years. ''^ 



The New Nation Faces New Problems 



211 




268. The "X. Y. Z. Affair." The French government 
felt that Jay's treaty had brought us nearer to England. 
This touched their pride, and 
they refused to receive our 
new minister, Charles C. 
Pinckney. John Adams was 
now President, having suc- 
ceeded Washington. He de- 
nounced the conduct of 
France, but sent two com- 
missioners to join Pinckney 
in trying to come to an under- 
standing. Three agents met 
the commissioners and gave 
them to understand they could 
do nothing unless each was 
paid a huge bribe. President 
Adams, in reporting the mat- 
ter to Congress, did not give 
the names of the agents but used the letters X, Y, and Z 
instead. Hence it has ever since been called the " X. Y. Z. 
Affair." 

269. Almost at war with France. In answer to the 
demand for money the cry went forth that we were 
willing to give "millions for defense, but not one cent 
for tribute." The people praised the President, sang the 
new and stirring song, "Hail Columbia," and Congress 
increased the army and ordered new ships built for the 
navy. War seemed certain. Indeed there was fighting 
at sea, and some French vessels were captured. But 
Adams learned that the French government was now 
willing to receive an American minister. One was sent 
and peace was made quickly (1800). Some Federalists 



From the portrait painted by John Trumbull 
JOHN ADAMS 

The orator of the Declaration^ of 
Independence 



212 



The Federalist Party in Power 



were not satisfied ; but most Americans were glad to be at 
peace, remembering how France had helped us. 

THE FALL OF THE FEDERALISTS 

270. The Alien and Sedition Acts (1798). In those 
days political discussions were very bitter. The Feder- 
alists, who were in power, were severely criticised by the 
Republicans, some of whom had recently come from for- 
eign countries. To stop this they passed three laws. 
The first increased from five to fourteen years the time 
required for a foreigner to become a citizen. The 
second gave the president power to order out of the 
country any foreigner considered dangerous to the gov- 
ernment. A 
third act was 
intended to 
punish by fine 
and imprison- 
ment any one 
who, by writ- 
ing or speak- 
ing, tried to 
bring the gov- 
ernment into 
contempt 
(Constitution, 
Amendment I.) 
These laws 

were too much like laws made for the protection of kings. 
The Republicans were furious and demanded their repeal. 
Even moderate Federalists thought them too severe. 

271. Kentucky and Virginia speak their minds (1798- 
1799). The strongest opposition came from Kentucky 




miimi'iinitoinioMiuKMraMiifO'liXi' 



THE OLD ST.\TE HOUSE, FRANKFORT, KENTUCKY 

Here the Kentucky Resolutions, written by Jefferson, were passed 



The Fall of the Federalists 213 

and Virginia. Their legislatures declared: (i) That the 
Alien and Sedition Acts break the Constitution; (2) 
that the Constitution is merely a "compact," or an agree- 
ment, between the States; (3) that each State may decide 
whether a law is against the Constitution, and if it is, 
the State may interpose its authority. Kentucky de- 
clared in 1799 the state had the right to "nullify" such a 
law. Jefferson wrote the Kentucky, and Madison the 
Virginia, resolutions. These resolutions are most impor- 
tant, since they were afterwards quoted in the Hartford 
Convention, (§303), during nullification in South Carolina, 
(§342), and in the great War of 1861. 

272. The triumph of the Republicans (1800). The 
campaign of 1800 was very bitter. The Federalists were 
fighting to hold, and the Republicans to gain, power. 
The Federalists told the people that Jefferson and his 
party would wreck the government. The Republicans 
declared that the Federalists had already done much to 
establish a monarchy and were afraid to trust the common 
people. The Republicans talked about high taxes and 
heavy expenses. There was some truth, too, in what 
they said, for under the Federalists expenses had mounted 
from $3,500,000 in 1792 to over $10,500,000 in 1800. 
Besides, extravagance, unpopular laws, and quarrels be- 
tween the leaders of the party aided in the defeat of Adams. 

273. Results of the election. Under the old way of 
voting it was possible to have a president and vice- 
president belonging to different parties, as in the case of 
Adams and Jefferson (Constitution, Art. II, §1, ]|3). It 
was also possible for two candidates of the same party to 
get the same number of votes. This happened now. 
Jefferson and Burr tied. The election went to the House 
of Representatives (Constitution, Art. II, §1), and 



214 



The Republicans in Power 



Jefferson was finally chosen by the help, it is said, of his ' 
great rival, Alexander Hamilton 7^ To prevent tie votes 

in the future, electors are re- 
quired to vote for one man 
for president and another for 
vice-president. (Constitution, 
Amendments, Art. XII.) 

The Federalists were sorry to 
give over the government — 
some because they honestly 
thought the Republicans were 
not fit to run it and others be- 
cause they hated to give up the 
offices. But Hamilton assured 
his friends that Jefferson would 
not ruin the government. 

Just before Adams left the 
presidency he appointed John 

From a portrait by Chester Harding Marshall, a Virginian, Chlcf 
JOHN MARSHALL _ ° 

A Virginia Federalist who wrote the first jUSticC of the SupremC CoUrt. 
important Life of Washington in i j_i • ^ r 

M arshall served thirty - tour 
years, and the people still honor his memory. 




THE REPUBLICANS IN POWER 

JEFFERSON'S NEW POLICY 

274. Jefferson the Democrat. By birth and training 
John Adams should have been a democrat. He grew 
up in the town meeting, the most democratic institution 
of that age. But he was an aristocrat. By birth and 
training Thomas Jeft'erson should have been an aristocrat. 
He belonged to one of the first families of Virginia and his 
associates had been among the great planters." But he 
was a democrat; he beheved in the common people. 



Jefferson's New Policy 



215 



Jefferson had been to college, and was a great student 
on almost all subjects, but probably knew men better 
than any one else in his day. He was in the House of 
Burgesses when a young man, and at thirty-three wrote 
the Declaration of Independence. He was governor of 
Virginia, was sent as minister to France, and was Wash- 
ington's secretary of state (§258). He was the "father" 
of the Republican, or democratic, party. 

275. Carrying out democratic ideas. When inaugu- 
ration day came Jefferson walked to the new capitol,** 
thus putting aside some of the show of the other presi- 
dents. He put aside lace, shoe buckles, and gilded 
buttons, and dressed in a simple way. He put aside 
fine carriages and footmen in gold lace, and at his recep- 
tions mingled with the people who came to greet him. 



"^1*1 










From a photograph 
MONTICELLO, THE HOME OF THOMAS JEFFERSON 



Instead of bowing stiffly, he shook hands with them and 
acted as one of them. He sent his message to Congress 



2l6 



The Republicans in Power 



to be read instead of going in "state" to address it, 
and expecting a visit in return, as had been the custom 

of Washington and Adams 
(§598). He was determined 
to give up everything that 
looked Hke aristocracy. 

He put his able friend, 
James Madison, in the posi- 
tion of secretary of state. He 
selected Albert Gallatin, a 
Swiss by birth, to manage the 
money of the government. 
Gallatin became the great 
r^^ financier of the Republican 
party. He urged Congress 
to cut down expenses in 
running the government. 
Congress immediately cut 
down the army and navy, 
and reduced taxes by repeal- 
ing the Excise Laws. The 
great war was still raging in 
Europe, and was putting the commerce of the world 
into our hands. The result was that Gallatin paid nearly 
one half the national debt in Jefferson's first term. 

276. The Louisiana Purchase (1803). The greatest 
event of Jefferson's administration was the purchase of 
Louisiana from Napoleon. France had given it to Spain 
under the treaty of 1/63. But Napoleon, now master 
of France, had forced Spain to give it back. Just about 
this time the Spanish governor at New Orleans (§250) 
closed the mouth of the Mississippi and a storm of indig- 
nation swept across the mountains and reached Jefferson. ■ 




From a paiuting by Rembrandt Peale 
THOMAS JEFFERSON 

The third president of the United States. 

Jefferson ivas a member of the First 

Continental Congress and drafted 

the Declaration of Independence 



Jefferson's New Policy 217 

Although a warm friend of France, he saw the danger 
of French control of the mouth of the Mississippi. He 
declared to our minister at Paris : ' ' There is on the globe 
one single spot, the possessor of which is our natural and 
habitual enemy. It is New Orleans." He hastened 
Monroe to France with orders to buy the Isle of Orleans 
and West Florida with the port of Mobile. 

Napoleon was getting ready for an invasion of 
England and wanted money. He therefore sold the 
whole of Louisiana, more than 1,000,000 square miles, for 
$15,000,000. At one stroke of the pen Jefferson had 
more than doubled the size of the United States. He 
had done a great thing for the country. But he felt that 
he had violated the doctrine of the strict construction of 
the Constitution (§260), which does not give the govern- 
ment the power to buy territory. 

277. Important results of the purchase, i. This pur- 
chase removed a great nation from this continent, and thus 
prevented war. 

2. It made the dissatisfied frontiersmen happy. They 
did not join in the plans of Aaron Burr (§273) to estab- 
lish a government at New Orleans or somewhere in the 
Southwest.'-^ 

J. Extreme Federalists took the "strict construction" 
view, opposed the purchase of Louisiana, and were loud 
in denouncing Jefferson for violating the Constitution 
(§260). 

4. A great field for western settlement was opened, 
and Jefferson sent out large exploring expeditions. 

278. Jefferson reelected (1804). Jefferson was re- 
elected on a rising tide of popularity. He carried all 
the States but two. The prophecy of danger made by 
Federalists had proved false. Jefferson had treated them 



2I( 



The Republicans in Power 



kindly and had turned very few out of office: many of 
them became RepubHcans. They Hked his democratic 
ways, and the cutting down of expenses. 

279. The first explorers of the great West. An expe- 
dition under Lewis and Clark left the log-cabin town of 
St. Louis in the spring of 1804. The explorers said 
goodby to civilization, worked their way up to the head- 
waters of the Missouri, crossed the Rocky Mountains, 




ROUTES OVER WHICH THE EXPEDITIONS OF LEWIS AND CLARK AND OF PIKE 
REACHED THE GREAT WEST 

and floated down the mighty Columbia to the blue 
waters of the Pacific. Next year they came back, and 
the people listened in amazement to their stories of the 
great West. 

This expedition gave the United States another claim 
to the region called Oregon. In 1792 Captain Gray, a 
Boston fur trader, had ehtered the mouth of a great river 
which he named Columbia. Lewis and Clark strength- 
ened our rights to the country against the claims of Eng- 
land and Russia. 

About this time another brave explorer, Zebulon Pike, 



Jefersoris New Policy 



219 




ZEBULON PIKE 



a,'t An American soldier and explorer, and 
the discoverer of Pike's Peak 



was struggling with the snow 

and ice of the upper Missis- 
sippi (1805). The next year 

he planned the exploration of 

the Arkansas ^"^ and the region 

of the Southwest, including 

the great region between the 

Rio Grande and the Sabine 

River. Unfortunately he lost 

his way and fell into the 

hands of Spaniards, who led 

him in a roundabout way 

through Texas to the Louis- 
iana border and set him 

liberty. 

The reports of these explorers opened the eyes of the 

nation to the value of the Louisiana Purchase. Their 

stories touched the imagina- 
tions and stirred the feelings 
of the people, and made them 
proud of the great domain in 
the "vast illimitable West." 
But some raised a warning 
note, believing that the re- 
public was too large and the 
parts too widely separated to 
be long held together. The 
nation, they said, would fall 
to pieces by its own weight. 
On the other hand, the parts 
were soon to be bound more 
closely together by a most 
important invention. 




From the original painting 
by Charles Wilson Peale 

MERIWETHER LEWIS 

One of the commanders of the expedition 



sent by Jefferson to find a route 
to the Oregon Country 



220 



The Republicans in Power 




280. The steamboat helps bind the nation together. 

We have already witnessed the efforts at steamboat 

building on the Savannah and 
the Delaware (§250). In 1807 
Fulton's steamboat, the "Cler- 
mont," made its first trip from 
New York up the Hudson to 
Albany. Hundreds of people 
gathered to witness its first 
voyage. Fulton, standing on 
the deck of the "Clermont," 
gave the signal to start. The 
boat moved, but suddenly 
stopped. "I told you so," 
said a doubting person. "It's 
a failure," said another. But 
while they were yet talking, 
Fulton fixed the machinery, 
and the boat, to the surprise 

and joy of all, steamed steadily up the river. It made 

the distance to Albany, 150 miles, in 32 hours and won 

a great victory for 

Fulton. The flat- 
boat and sailing 

vessel now had a 

dangerous rival. 

In a few years 

steamboats were 

plying on the Ohio, 

and in i 81 5 a 

steamboat helped 

General Andrew Jackson defeat the British at the Battle 

of New Orleans by carrying supplies to his army. 



After the painting by West 

ROBERT FULTON 

An American engimer and inventor. 

With the launching of his ship, the 

"Clermont," began steam navigation 




THE CLERMONT STEAMING TO ALBANY 



A Hard Struggle for Freedom of Trade 221 

A HARD STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM OF TRADE 

281. War with the pirates of the Barbary States 
(1801-1805). For many years the pirates of northern 
Africa preyed upon the commerce of Christian nations. 
To prevent this, the nations of Europe paid them tribute, 
and at first America followed the same plan. In the very 
first year of his administration Jefferson, lover of peace, 




THE BLOWING UP OF THE "INTREPID" IN THE H.^RBOR OF TRIPOLI 

The Utile boat was exploded in the harbor to do damage to Barbary vessels. Thirteen 

American seamen voluntarily perished in the explosion 

felt it wiser to punish the pirates than pay tribute. He 
ordered several expeditions against them, and after hard 
fighting compelled them to let American commerce alone." 
282. War in Europe increases American trade. The 
war in Europe still went on (§265). The English navy- 
was "mistress of the seas." The French West India 
trade fell largely into American hands, and our tariff 
duties^^ rose in one year from $14,000,000 to $20,000,000, 



222 The Republicans in Power 

Secretary Gallatin paid still more of the national debt 

(§275). 

Without warning, Great Britain declared that goods 
carried from the French West Indies to the United States 
and then taken to France were liable to be captured. 
Within six months her navy had seized over 100 American 
vessels and had impressed nearly 1,000 of our seamen 
( § 266) . Scores of merchants were injured and hundreds of 
sailors were clamoring for their rights. A loud cry went 
up against Great Britain's conduct, but our navy had 
been cut down (§275) since Jefferson and Madison 
were men of peace and wished to avoid war. 

283. British orders and French decrees (1806-1807). 
Napoleon determined to strike England a deadly blow- 
by shutting all the ports of Europe under his control 
against her commerce. ^'-^ England struck back by an order 
blockading these ports. Napoleon forbade all nations 
to trade with England, and England replied by capturing 
vessels that traded with Napoleon. Great Britain in 
one year captured nearly 200 American vessels and 
France seized as many as her small navy would permit.^'' 

284. Jefferson tries peaceful means. Impressment 
went on and the war spirit blazed forth, but Jefferson's 
love of peace was strong. He tried three measures: 

1. His most warlike measure was to build 176 gun- 
boats to protect the seaports. In time of peace they 
were to be laid up on shore, and in time of war they 
were to be used against the enemy. They proved 
expensive and worthless. 

2. Jefferson sent Pinckney and Monroe to make a 
treaty with Great Britain, but so poor seemed the 
treaty Jefferson did not even show it to the Senate. 
(Constitution, Art. II, §2.) 



A Hard Struggle for Freedom of Trade 223 

J. A non-importation act refused American vessels 
the privilege of importing certain British goods. So 
desperate was her struggle with the mighty Napoleon 
that Great Britain could not afford even to notice the 
"boycott," as she once had done (§§162, 166). 

285. The "Chesapeake" and the "Leopard" (1807). 
While Jefferson was doing his best to avoid war, a thing 
happened that stirred the whole country. The American 
warship, "Chesapeake," was stopped by the British vessel 
"Leopard" in search for seamen. The American com- 
mander was taken by surprise. His ship was not ready 
to fight. But he boldly refused to have it searched. 
The "Leopard" opened fire. Three men fell dead and 
eighteen were wounded. The American ship struck her 
colors. British officers came on board; they called the 
roll while American sailors stood in ranks. Four sailors 
were seized and the "Chesapeake" slowly sailed back to 
Hampton Roads. 

Public excitement knew no bounds. Meetings were 
held in all the large cities to denounce the outrage. 
Thousands called for war, but Jefferson still hoped to 
preserve peace. Meanwhile he ordered British vessels 
from American waters. 

286. The Embargo Act (1807). Jefferson now recom- 
mended and Congress passed the Embargo Act, which 
closed American ports to all foreign trade even in Ameri- 
can vessels. But this hurt America as much as it did 
Great Britain or France. Business in all sections of the 
country was injured. The tobacco and cotton of the 
South could not be sent to Europe. New England and the 
middle colonies began to turn their attention to manufac- 
turing. The smugglers would not obey the law, although 
soldiers and warships were called upon to enforce it. Just 



224 



The Republicans in Power 



before retiring from office Jefferson signed the act for its 
repeal. ^^ The Non-Intercourse Act took its place. This 
forbade trade only with England and France. 

287. Madison president (1809-1817) ; still trying to 
keep out of war. James Madison, one of \'irginia's 
great sons, was elected president (1808). He hoped to 
carry out Jefferson's policy of economy at home and 
peace abroad. 

He tried to get England to stop seizing our ships and 
seamen, but failed. The Non-Intercourse Act was 
repealed, but it was now agreed that if either England 

or France would repeal 
its harsh regulations the 
United States would refuse 
to trade with the other. 

Napoleon now played a 
shrewd game, as he did 
against the embargo. He 
gave out a report that 
France had repealed her 
decrees. American trading 
vessels, happy in the new 
chance, sailed for France. 
Napoleon promptly seized 
them and confiscated their 
cargoes, amounting to 
$10,000,000. 

288. The man of peace 
goes to war. Matters were 
hurrying to a crisis with 
England and our minister left. The Indians in Indiana 
Territory were on the warpath. Madison ordered the 
"President" to sea to protect our trade. She captured 




From the painting by Gilbert Stuart 
JAMES MADISON 
Fourth President of the United Stales. His 
unusual service as a member of the Con- 
stitutional Convention won for him the 
title "Father of the Constitution" 



A Hard Struggle for Freedom of Trade 



225 



the "Little Belt." This, the Americans felt, repaid the 
British for the attack on the "Chesapeake." 

When Congress met in November, 181 1, the peace- 
loving Republicans found that the events just described 
had produced a war party in 



'^^^ 




CLAY AND CALHOUN, THE "WAR HAWKS," 
URGING MADISON TO DECLARE WAR 



their midst. Seventy new 
members^ all for war, had 
been elected to this Con- 
gress. They were led by 
younger men from the West 
and South, such as Henry 
Clay*- and John C. Calhoun. 
These men urged President 
Madison to favor war. Con- 
gress voted for war June 18, 
1812; the "War Hawks" 
had their way. 

289. Causes of the war; 
strength of the two nations. Our two greatest com- 
plaints against England were: (/) She captured our ships 
and interfered with our trade (§§266, 282). (2) She seized 
our sailors, claiming that they were born in British 
lands (§§266, 282). Also many Americans believed that 
the Indians were stirred against us by English agents. 

We made many efforts to settle these matters peace- 
ably. But England, busy with her great struggles against 
Napoleon, could not see things as we did.- Madison's 
efforts for peace failed, and war came. 

Great Britain was far better prepared than we. Her 
army was well trained, her navy the largest in the world. 

Our regular army was made up of a few thousand 
men; the State militia was our main fighting strength. 
Our navy was small, only about twenty fighting vessels. 



2 26 The Republicans in Power 

THE WAR FOR COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 

290. The battle of Tippecanoe (181 1). The settlers 
of Indiana Territory did not wait for a declaration of war. 
Governor Harrison, located at Vincennes (§208), was 
watching Tecumseh, the great Shawnee chief, and his 
brother the "Prophet." Harrison marched his Httle 












fif||lp)«||Mi'^r' -*^ - p„^ ^ contemporary en«r«vin. 

FORT HARRISON, ON THE WABASH, l8l2 

army to the Prophet's town at the junction of the Tip- 
pecanoe and Wabash rivers. Tecumseh was absent in 
the South forming a great league of the Creeks, Chero- 
kees, Choctaws, and Chickasaws. 

The night Harrison arrived at the Indian town the 
'' Prophet " stirred his warriors to the fighting point. He 
told wonderful stories of what the Great Spirit would do 
for them. Before dawn the Indians rushed into Harrison's 
camp, shooting down his men by the light of the camp- 
fires. But at daylight the Indians were put to flight by a 
bayonet charge. The battle of Tippecanoe made Harrison 
a frontier hero and, later, president of the United States. 
On Tecumseh's return he and his braves openly joined 
the British. 

291. The land campaigns of 181 2. The cry for the 
invasion of Canada arose. Three armies started. General 
Hull had hardly reached Detroit before he surrendered 



The War for Commercial Independence 



227 



to the British without firing a gun. All Michigan^'' and 
Fort Dearborn, now Chicago, fell to the Canadians. 




THE SCENE OF THE WAR OF l8l2 

Van Rensselaer saved a part of his army in the battle 
of Queenston Heights. General Dearborn failed to arouse 
enthusiasm in New England and New York, and only 
reached the border. Canada could not be taken at a dash. 
Thus the land campaigns of 181 2 closed with little hope 
for the Americans. But on the sea, it was different. 



228 



The Republicans in Power 



292. Victories at sea; the "Constitution" captures 
the "Guerriere." The Republican party had paid httle 
attention to the navy. The British made sport of it. 
But a great surprise was in store for the whole world 
when the "Constitution" met the "Guerriere" in the 
Gulf of St. Lawrence (18 12). At the call of fife and drum 




After the paioting by G. White 
THE ENGAGEMENT OF THE "CONSTITUTION" AND " GUERRIERE" 

The "Constilulion" was the "lucky" ship of the war and was nicknamed "Old Ironsides" 

every man ran to his post. The sailors climbed into the 
rigging, the gunners double-loaded their cannon, and the 
powder boys ran for supplies of ammunition. Muskets 
and pistols were placed near at hand, and sand was 
scattered over the deck. 

The "Guerriere" had already opened fire, but Captain 
Hull waited until within pistol shot of the enemy. Then 
he fired a whole broadside. A British mast fell! The 
ships now came close together and the American sailors 
tied them fast. Both crews were ready to "board" and 
fight it out hand to hand, but the ships drifted apart. 



The War for Commercial Independence 229 

The noise of the cannon, the constant crack of the 
muskets, the loud commands of the officers, the shrieks 
of the wounded, the clouds of smoke, the powder-stained 
faces of the gunners, all joined to make an awful scene. 

As the two vessels parted, the remaining masts of the 
"Guerriere" fell. With great holes torn in her sides she 
lay a helpless wreck, and soon struck her flag. Captain 
Hull carried his prisoners to Boston, and the people gave 
him a rousing reception. Salutes were fired, swords were 
voted, resolutions passed, and bonfires blazed to testify 
to the people's joy. "It took but half an hour, but in 
that one half hour the United States of America rose to 
the rank of a first-class power." 

Later the "Constitution" won a victory over the 
' ' Java ' ' and was given the proud name of ' ' Old Ironsides. ' ' 
The warship ' ' United States ' ' also won a victory over the 
"Macedonian." 

The smaller American ships were also victorious. The 
"Wasp" took the "Frolic," the "Hornet" the "Pea- 
cock, ' ' and the ' ' Enterprise ' ' the ' ' Boxer. ' ' The ' ' Essex, ' ' 
with Porter in command, sailed around Cape Horn and 
captured more British vessels in the Pacific than could 
be cared for. She was finally captured by two British 
men-of-war. On board the "Essex" was David G. 
Farragut, a boy of thirteen, a native of Tennessee and 
one of our future naval heroes (§ § 447, 466). 

293. The effect of these victories; the "Chesapeake" 
and "Shannon." Great Britain was amazed. Other 
nations had built navies only to have Great Britain 
destroy them. She had been, but was not any more, 
"mistress of the seas." 

Our first important naval defeat came when the 
"Shannon" captured the "Chesapeake." Captain 
9 



230 The Republicans in Power 

Lawrence met the "Shannon" before his crew was well 

trained. After he had been mortally wounded he cried 

, .^ . - r^-r^M out to his men, "Don't give up the 

*-^ ship." His dying command became 

k :/ the motto of the American navy. 

k ' 294. Privateers in the War of 1812. 

|K j War was hardly declared before hun- 

p i dreds of private vessels armed them- 

i' - — -^ selves and scoured the seas in search 

PERRY'S BATTLE FLAG ^^ British mcrchant ships. 

About 40 privateers were fitted out in southern waters, 
not including Baltimore, while from this last named city 
alone 58 privateers went forth to capture British com- 
merce. In all there were 492 licensed privateers which 
succeeded in capturing 1,350 prizes. This great loss to 
Great Britain did much to hasten peace. 

295. Harrison and Perry cooperate; victory on Lake 
Erie (1813). Reinforced by Kentucky troops, Harrison 
was moving against the British to save the West from 
Indian massacre, for the British were using the red men 
as allies (§290). Harrison sent General Winchester into 
southern Michigan, where he was captured and a large 
part of his army massacred on the river Raisin. The 
Kentuckians were furious and hastened forward rein- 
forcements. "Remember the river Raisin" became their 
war cry. 

While Harrison was gathering supplies, a young naval 
officer. Captain Perry, was busy building a fleet of war- 
ships on Lake Erie. ' The British were also building 
warships. In September the two fleets met near Put- 
in-Bay. Perry had nine vessels, three more than the 
British, but they were smaller and had fewer guns. For 
three hours the battle raged. Perry's flagship, the 



I 



The War for Commercial Independence 



231 



"Lawrence," was a wreck. Perry himself, with his flag 
bearing Lawrence's motto (§293), was rowed through a 
storm of shot and shell to the "Niagara." He gave the 
signal for close action, and the "Niagara" tore through 
the enemy's lines, pouring broadsides' right and left. 
After eight minutes victory was won. 

With the smoke of battle still hovering over the 
"Lawrence," Perry sent his famous dispatch to Harrison: 
"We have met the enemy and they are ours; two ships, 
two* brigs, one schooner, and one sloop." 

Perry's fleet carried Harrison's army across the lake 
in a hot chase after the British and Indians. More than 
half his army was made up of Kentuckians, determined to 




Adapted from the painting by W. H. Powell 
P2RRY AT THE BATTLE OF LAKE ERIE 
The eight men who rowed Perry across to the "Niagara" were all that were left of 
the crew of the "Lawrence" 

avenge the death of their comrades and kinsmen at the 
Raisin. Harrison overtook the British at the Thames. 
The British general fled but Tecumseh (§290) stood his 
ground and fought bravely until killed.^* The ground 



232 



The Republicans in Power 



lost by Hull's surrender was more than recovered, and 
the nation rejoiced. A month later Wilkinson tried to 
invade Canada, but was defeated in a sharp battle and 
gave up the attempt. 

296. Blow and counterblow (1813-1814). Canada was 
invaded and York (now Toronto) captured. Another 




Hull — ^— Dearborn 

Harrison Wilkinson ^ • — 



CAMPAIGNS IN THE NORTH AND 
EAST, WAR OF 1812 



attempt against Montreal failed. Canadians returned 
the compliment by crossing over and attacking Sackett's 
Harbor, but Jacob Brown, a militia officer, successfully 
defended the place. The Canadians also invaded and 
plundered the region from Niagara to Buffalo. Forces 
under the command of Generals Brown, Ripley, and 
Scott fought hard battles at Chippewa and Lundy's 



The War for Commercial Independence 233 

Lane, on the Niagara River. They abandoned this 
region by the end of the year. 

297. Victory on Lake Champlain (1814). After the 
defeat of Napoleon, England sent thousands of her best 
troops to invade New York by way of Lake Champlain 
(§187). McDonough's fleet of fourteen vessels was 
guarding the lake. The British came down upon him 
with sixteen vessels, one of which carried thirty-seven 
guns. McDonough forced every British ship to strike 
its flag, and the veterans of Europe retreated across 
the Canadian line. The invasion of New York, from 
which so much had been hoped, was given up. 

298. Washington taken and Baltimore attacked (1814). 
England, freed from the danger of Napoleon's army, 
now sent her fleets to blockade our ports and plunder 
our towns. While she was planning her great invasion 
of New York she sent an expedition against Wash- 
ington in order to draw forces from New York. The 
British sailed up Chesapeake Bay. The few regulars and 
militia gathered there were hastily brushed aside and 
the British entered our capital (August, 1814). The 
president fled panic-stricken. The capitol and White 
House were burned. The English themselves now regret 
this act. 

The British, after plundering Alexandria, turned to 
Baltimore, where they found 14,000 militia ready to 
oppose them. The bay was defended by Fort McHenry. 
The fleet bombarded the fort all night, but could not 
silence it. The British, having lost their general, did not 
dare assault the city. They went on board and sailed for 
New Orleans. Francis Scott Key, while a prisoner on 
board a British warship bombarding the American fort, 
wrote "The Star-Spangled Banner. "^^ 



234 



The Republicans in Power 



299. War on the Gulf of Mexico. Spain had joined 
England. The bold frontiersmen of West Florida, 
those located nearest the Mississippi, revolted from 
Spain (§226) and seized Baton Rouge. President Madi- 
son at once recognized their courage by ordering the 
governor of Louisiana Territory to include them within 
his authority (18 10). 

Andrew Jackson, ordered by the President, raised 2,000 
frontiersmen from Tennessee and Kentucky. He took 
them on the Cumberland down to the Ohio and thence 
down the Mississippi to Natchez. But Congress refused 
to agree to the expedition, and Jackson and his men had 

to find their way back. 
But Jackson's time 
came. Tecumseh had 
stirred the Creeks to war 
(§ 2Qo). The settlers, 500 
strong, gathered at Fort 
Mims. In an unguarded 
moment 1,000 Creek 
warriors fell upon the 
settlers and massacred 
more than 400 men, 
women, and children. 
The Indians were mad- 
dened by the fact that 
they lost almost half 
their number, so brave 
had been the defense. 
Tennessee was aroused. 
She sent Jackson, with 
his brave frontiersmen, aided by General Coffee's cavalry- 
men, to punish the Indians. Jackson won two hard fought 




After a portrait sketch from life by Pierre I-« Bru 

TECUMSEH, CHIEF OF THE SHAWNEES 

The greatest orator among the Indians. When dying 
"Tell my people that Tecumseh died 
like a warrior and a hero" 



he said: 



The War for Commercial Independence 



235 




From a contemporary drawing 
GENERAL JOHN COFFEE 



battles, breaking the power of the Creeks first at Tal- 
ladega (18 13) and later on the Tallapoosa at Horseshoe 
Bend (18 14). Mobile had been 
taken, and a great region was 
opened up to settlement in 
southern and western Alabama. 

300. The victory at New Or- 
leans. Jackson seized Pensa- 
cola, thus preventing the British 
from occupying it. He had 
hardly reached Mobile when he 
was called to New Orleans by 
the news of a great British 
expedition of 16,000 men, with 
a fleet of more than fifty sail, 
to get possession of Louisiana and the lower Mississippi. 

Jackson declared martial law, threw his forces between 
the enemy and the city, and began to throw up breast- 
works. Day and night the works were rushed. Man, 
horse, mule, and ox were pressed into the service. 

Several small battles told of the coming storm. On 
January 8, 181 5, the British made the great assault in 
the early morning. By four o'clock every American was 
ready, 3,500 behind breastworks and 1,000 in reserve. 
A little after daybreak the red lines of the British could 
be seen. The twelve American cannon cut great holes 
in the advancing column. These holes closed up as the 
British came on until the riflemen blazed forth — one 
volley after another. A cannon loaded to the muzzle 
with musket balls cut down 200 men. The killed and 
wounded lay in heaps. No one could stand before 
such a fire, and the veterans of many a European battle 
field retreated before the riflemen of the Southwest. 



236 



The Republicans in Power 



The British withdrew to their ships and sailed away. 
They had lost 2,600 men and their commander, Pakenham. 
In the main battle Jackson lost only eight killed and 
thirteen wounded. The Battle of New Orleans is one of 
the great events in American history. For it not only 
freed the mouth of the Mississippi from invasion but 
y ^ , , = ..-. - R restored Amer- 

a/.i:^-x4V\ ^i.:-./ r5 ^ ican confidence 

in militia well 
led and well 
trained. Jack- 
son was now 
the hero gen- 
eral of the coun- 
try. But the 
chances are the 
battle would 
never have 
occurred had 
modern ways 
of sending 
i^ews then been 
known. The treaty of peace had been signed at Ghent 
more than two weeks before, on Christmas Eve, 18 14. 
301. End of the war; a century of friendship. The 
treaty did not mention neutral trade or the seizing of 
sailors. It was not necessary to do so. The great war 
in Europe was about over and these questions would now 
cease to give trouble. Our boundaries remained the 
same as before the war. 

From that day to this there has been no war between 
the two great English-speaking nations, but more than a 
hundred years of friendship.^'' There are no big forts 




J.^CKSON AT NEW ORLE.4NS DIRECTING THE DEFENSE 

AG.4INST THE BRITISH ASSAULT 

Notice the different styles of dress worn by the riflemen and 

the soldiers 



Results oj the War 237 

along our northern boundary line, and no large battle- 
ships on the lakes. Differences have arisen, sometimes 
serious ones ; but a way was found to settle them without 
loss of self-respect and without resort to war. 

A NEW ERA 

RESULTS OF THE WAR 

302. Military lessons. The war had a sobering effect 
on the nation. Our armies had met some serious reverses 
and our capitol had been burned. We were learning that 
even the bravest soldiers can do little unless well trained 
and skillfully led. But our pride w^as saved by Jackson's 
great victory at New Orleans and by the bold deeds of 
our seamen. 

303. The Hartford Convention. The Federalists had 
opposed the purchase of Louisiana (§276), the Embargo 
(§286), and many other acts of the Republican Party. 
They were especially bitter against the war with England, 
which they called "Mr. Madison's War." Their oppo- 
sition reached its height near the close of the war in 
the Hartford Convention (18 14). Here they criticized 
severely the acts of the government, and demanded 
changes in the constitution to protect their states. Finally 
some delegates from New England states talked of with- 
drawing from the Union. 

304. Effect of the war on parties. The Hartford Con- 
vention was scarcely over when news came of the British 
defeat at New Orleans and that peace had been made. 
There was great rejoicing. This was a successful ending 
of the war; and the Federalists who had so bitterly 
opposed it found that they had killed their party. 

Many of the Federalists now joined the party of Jeffer- 
son and Madison. They found it easy to do so, for the 



238 A New Era 

Republicans differed less from the Federalists than 
formerly. They had found it hard to stick steadily to 
their idea of the strict understanding of the constitution 
(§260). They had bought Louisiana (§276), and now 
they chartered a second Bank of the United States, ^^ 
although they had earnestly opposed the first one (§259). 
Some were ready even to vote for an increase in the 
tariff if it were needed to help our new manufacturers. 

305. Growth of manufacturing. Little manufacturing 
had been done in America during Colonial times, or even 
for some years after the Revolution. All but the simplest 
goods came from abroad, especially from England, which 
was becoming a great manufacturing country. There 
machinery had been invented for spinning and weaving.^ 
Her factories were run by steam or water power, and 
were the finest in the world. Her ships carried their 
products over all the seas. 

Slowly we began to follow in her footsteps. Slater 
(§249) came and built a spinning mill. Americans set 
to work making machinery for factories. But progress 
was slow until the Embargo (§286) and the War of 181 2 
stopped the bringing in of foreign goods. Many of our 
merchants and ship owners then found their business 
ruined and turned eagerly to making the goods they 
had formerly imported. ^^ This was the real beginning 
of American manufacturing. It grew rapidly in the 
North, especially in New England. 

306. Demand for a higher tariff. With the return of 
peace, trade with Europe began again. Great quantities 
of manufactured goods came from England and other 
lands. American manufacturers cried out that they 
were not yet strong enough to meet this competition. 
They called on Congress for help and Congress passed the 



The Country Grows 



230 



Tariff of 181 6. This increased 
the duties on foreign goods. 
It was the first tariff whose 
main purpose was to protect 
American manufactures. 

In every part of the country 
were found some men who 
favored it and some who op- 
posed it. 

THE COUNTRY GROWS 

307. New States from the 
West strengthen the Nation. 

We have seen a wave of migra- 
tion sweeping westward at the 
close of the Revolution (§248). 
It added to the family of States 
Kentucky (1792), Tennessee 
(1796), and Ohio (1803). (Con- 
stitution, Art. IV, §3.) No 
sooner had peace been made 
with the Indians at the close of 
the war of 181 2 than the old 
lines of travel (§250), aided by 
new ones and by the steamboat, 
were pouring streams of settlers 
into the new regions. The result 
was a quick admission of the 
young and vigorous states of 
Louisiana ^ ( 1 8 1 2 ) , Indiana ^^ 
(1816), Mississippi^^ (1817), 
Illinois»3 (18 18), Alabama 9* (1819), Maine^^ (1820), and 
Missouri ^^ (182 1). Vermont had been admitted (1791) 




HOW SETTLERS MOVED WEST 



240 



A New Era 



and twenty-four states now composed the Union. No 
more were admitted until 1836. 



Ti>^ 




THE FLORIDAS FROM 1 763 TO 1 783 

308. Florida purchased (1819). Florida, in the hands 
of Spain, was causing much suffering to the people of 
southern Georgia and Alabama. It harbored large num- 
bers of runaway slaves, robbers, and Seminole Indians. 
On the approach of troops the Indians and their allies 
retreated to the dense Florida swamps, where it was 
dangerous to follow them. • 

Spain did not keep order in Florida. The United States 

offered to buy the region. Spain refused to sell and 

proposed to exchange Florida for Louisiana (18 17). 









GULF o r 






J/ E X I C O 




FLORID.\ FROM 181O TO 1819 



Another raid against the white settlers led General Jack- 
son to invade Florida. He captured forts St. Marks and 



The Country Grows 241 

Pensacola, and seized and hanged two British subjects 
and two Indian chiefs. John Quincy Adams, secretary 
of state, stood by Jackson not only before Monroe's cabi- 
net but against the protests of England and Spain /-•' To 
save further trouble, Spain agreed to accept $5,000,000 
for Florida. ^^ The United States accepted the Sabine 
River as the western boundary of Louisiana, giving up 
all claim to Texas. 

309. The Missouri Compromise (1820). We have seen 
slavery dying out in the North (§253). The Ordinance of 
1787 made the Northwest free soil (§234). Jefferson and 
others had wished to see the South and Southwest free 
some day. But the men who made the Constitution 
thought it necessary to permit slaves to be brought in 
from abroad for twenty years more. The demand for 
them after the invention of the cotton gin gave slavery 
a firmer hold (§254). 

As the northern States one after another freed their 
slaves, there soon came to be as many free as slave States. 
This balance was kept up by admitting new States alter- 
nately from each section. The plan worked peacefully 
until Missouri was ready to come in. Then suddenly 
a fierce dispute arose as to whether it should be admitted 
as a slave State. So bitter was the struggle that many 
feared the Union was in danger. Thomas Jefferson, then 
an old man, said that it startled him "like a fire bell in 
the night." 

Men felt that a crisis had come. Missouri lay in the 
heart of the great Louisiana Purchase, halfway between 
the North and the South. Now was the time to settle 
the slavery question, not only in Missouri but for all the 
remaining part of the large territory that we had bought 
from France. Should Louisiana be free or slave territory ? 



242 



A New Era 



Congress debated and States passed resolutions. Public 
meetings were held, and press and pulpit took up the 
question. At length, when it seemed almost impossible 
to settle the matter peacefully, a compromise was 
reached. Missouri was admitted as a slave State, but 




HENRY CL.\Y ADDRESSING THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES 

slavery was forbidden in the rest of the Louisiana 
Purchase north of 36°3o', which was the southern 
boundary of Missouri. Maine, a free State, was ad- 
mitted, thus keeping the balance between the free and 
the slave States. 

This compromise helped to preserve the Union for many 
years. It was the work of many men ; but no one did more 
to make it successful than Henry Clay, the eloquent 
speaker of the House. 

THE RISE OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS 

310. How demands for internal improvements arose. 

When settlers bade goodby to the old home and turned 
their faces toward the West, they called for frequent 



The Rise of Internal Improvements 



243 



letters, news, and supplies to follow them. The mer- 
chants at home wished to exchange their manufactured 
goods for the meat and corn produced by the settlers. 
This demand called forth the efforts of individuals. States, 
and Nation. In our history, there have been several 
steps in the growth of travel: (7^) the canal and steam- 
boat; (2) the turnpike road; (3) the railroad; {4) the 
automobile; (5) the airplane. 

311. The beginning of canals. Before the Revolution 
George Washington had planned a canal to join Chesa- 
peake Bay with the Ohio River. Within a few years 
after the close of that war Virginia and North Carolina 
granted the right to construct the Dismal Swamp Canal, 
the first canal built in America. South Carolina was not 
to be outdone by her neighbors: The Charleston and 
Santee Canal was begun a little later. The Boston and 
Middlesex Canal was finished in 1803. Other canals 
were begun in the Middle States. But these were just the 







BOATLOADS OF SOLDIERS ON THE DISMAL SWAMP CANAL 

beginning. It took the War of 18 12 to arouse the United 
States to see the need of these artificial waterways. After 
its close the work was renewed on a larger scale (§314). 



244 



A New Era 




312. The work of the steamboat. Before the War of 
181 2 at least one steamboat, the "New Orleans," had 

puffed its way up 
and down the Ohio 
and Mississippi 
rivers (181 1). 

By the end of the 
war seven steam- 
boats had been 
launched on west- 
ern rivers, and, 

THE "new ORLEANS" , • . ^ r 

In 181 1 this steamer made the first trip from Pittsburgh to ^^^OSt important OI 

^'^oriearts ^jj^ ^ steamboat 

had reached Louisville loaded with goods from New 
Orleans; barges and flatboats had not been able to 
make headway against the current. It had taken six 
weeks by barge from Louisville to New Orleans, and thir- 
teen weeks to 
return. Now 
the steamboat 
made the trip 
in as many 
days as it had 
taken weeks 
before. East- 
ern merchants 
took alarm 
and called 

louder than ever for roads and canals to join the East and 
the West. A Pennsylvania farmer paid one third the cost 
of his goods to send them across the mountains to Ken- 
tucky, but an Illinois farmer paid only one twentieth of 
their value to send them down the river to New Orleans. 




TRANSPORTATION BY FLATBOAT 

Carrying goods down the Ohio and Mississippi to New Orleans 



The Rise of Internal Improvements 245 

313. The Cumberland Road. Albert Gallatin, Presi- 
dent Jefferson's secretary of the treasury (§275), pro- 
posed a great plan for roads and canals: Canals from 
Maine to Florida cutting through land projections, thus 
shortening the way; a great roadway extending along 
the coast parallel to the canals, and finally roads run- 
ning from all important places on the coast over the 
mountains. 

Only a part of this plan was carried out. In 1806 Con- 
gress voted to begin the Cumberland Road to run from 
Cumberland on the Potomac to Wheeling on the Ohio. 
This road averaged _ .^^^^ 

eighty feet wide, " ,,. T'^ 

and a post marked 
each quarter of a 
mile. It was a 
"turnpike," being 
paved with stone 
and covered with 
gravel. It climbed 
the rocky sides of 

1 .\ TOLL BRIDGE IN VIRGINIA 

mountains, and 

crossed great chasms by immense walls of stonework. 
Along this highway were toll bridges or toll gates 
whose keepers collected toll from the passing travelers. 
This money was used to keep the bridges and roads 
in repair. 

Over the winding highway in the "moving seasons" 
could be seen long lines of emigrant wagons and 
pack horses journeying westward to new homes. 
Men, women, and children drove a few cows, sheep, 
or hogs to stock their western farms. On their way 
they met wagons laden with corn or meat, or saw great 




246 



A New Era 



droves of cattle or hogs going to the eastern markets. 
In 1820, through Henry Clay's influence, this route was 




After the paintiDg by Denmau Fink 
SETTLERS MOVING WEST ALONG THE CUMBERLAND ROAD 

The beginning of the development of the West 

surveyed from the Ohio River as far west as St. 
Louis, and was intended to go to the capital of Mis- 
souri. This part of the highway was called the National 
Road. 

314. Building canals; the Erie Canal. The merchants 
of the Atlantic region called for canals as well as roads, 
but Congress refused to vote money for canals.^^ The 
work then fell to the different States. We have already 
seen Virginia and the Carolinas voting money and building 
canals (§311). The canal around the Ohio Falls at 
Louisville improved the Ohio. In the same sense the 
Charleston Canal and the Pennsylvania Canal were 
important undertakings. But New York made the most 
extensive improvement of this kind, the Erie Canal. 



The Rise oj Internal Improvements 



247 



In 181 7, the State of New York began the Erie Canal, 
called "Clinton's Big Ditch" because De Witt Clinton 
was enthusiastic in building it. The first canal was 363 
miles long, 40 feet wide, and but 4 feet deep. 

In 1825, when the waters of Lake Erie poured into the 
canal, the news was told by booming cannon five miles 
apart. Clinton and a party of distinguished men with 
a fleet of canal boats made a journey from Lake Erie to 
the Atlantic. Celebrations marked their progress. On 
November 4, amid the ringing of bells in the great city, 
and surrounded by a fleet, Clinton emptied kegs of water 
from Lake Erie into the Atlantic, signifying the union 
of the lakes with the ocean. 

The Erie Canal produced far-reaching results. To 
carry freight from Buffalo to Albany cost only one tenth 
as much as before. The canal became a great highway 
for goods and for travel. The West had a cheap means 
of reaching eastern and European markets. Not only 
was New York City made the commercial center of 
America, but along 
the canal arose 
many flourishing 
cities.™ Both 
Baltimore and 
Philadelphia tried 
to improve con- 
nections with the 
West, but were 
hindered by the 
mountains. The 
Chesapeake and 
Ohio Canal was built along the Potomac Valley from 
Georgetown to Cumberland, Maryland. 




TRAVEL ON THE ERIE CANAL IN 1 8 25 



248 



A New Era 



The States of Ohio, Indiana, and IlHnois went into 
canal building extensively, to connect the Ohio River 
with the Great Lakes. With the coming of the railroads, 
affording more rapid travel, most of these canals fell 
into disuse. 

315. Railroad beginnings. The canal is slow, but 
saves money; the railroad is fast, and saves time. The 
first railroad did not give much promise of soon running 
"palace cars." The cars looked like big wagons at first. 
They were run on wooden rails or rails strapped with 
iron, and were drawn by horses. 

In 1828 Baltimore began the work on that historic road, 
the Baltimore & Ohio, the first long road in America. A 
great ceremony took place. Charles Carroll of Carroll- 
ton, then ninety- three years old, the last living signer of 
the Declaration of Independence, drove the first spade into 

the ground with these words: 
"I consider this among the 
most important acts of my life, 
second only to the signing of the 
Declaration of Independence." 
About the same time South 
Carolina began a railroad from 
Charleston to Hamburg, and in 
three years this had become the 
longest road in the world, 135 
miles. In 1830 it had the-honor 
of trying a successful experi- 
ment with an American-built 
Charleston-Hamburg Railroad engine, madc at West Point, 
The National Road, the steamboat, the canal, and the 
steam railroad were mighty forces in binding the parts 
of the Union together. 







A SAILING CAR 
The sailing car was tried on the 



The Monroe Doctrine 



249 




THE MONROE DOCTRINE 

316. The era of good feeling. The bitter feelings of 
early days were passing away. The Federalist party was 
dead, and Monroe, in 1820, re- 
ceived all the electoral votes 
but one, and that one went to 
another because the elector wished 
Washington to be the only presi- 
dent elected by unanimous vote. 
Adams and Jefferson renewed 
their long-time friendship and 
set a fine example to their divided 
followers.i°^ 

In his first term Monroe jour- 
neyed through many States and 
received everywhere a most en- 
thusiastic welcome. In Boston, 
where opposition to his party had 
been bitter, a great jubilee was 
held and 50,000 people bade him welcome. Monroe was 
a peacemaker, and everywhere he went he pleaded for a 
united people. National brotherhood had a new birth 
under his kindly rule, and our friendly feeling toward 
other American republics found expression in his famous 
"Monroe Doctrine." 

317. New republics in South America. During the 
wars of Napoleon and the political struggles that followed, 
the colonies of Spain in South America began to revolt. 
They had two great leaders, San Martin and Bolivar. 
Under the guidance of these men they set up republican 
governments and bravely fought for their independence. 
We sympathized strongly with them in their struggle 
for liberty. Henry Clay spoke eloquently for them. 



From the painting by Gilbert Stuart 

JAMES MONROE 

Our fifth president. He was twice 

minister to France, and later 

Secretary of State under 

President Madison 



250 



A New Era 







"We behold there," he said, "the glorious spectacle of 
eight millions of people struggHng to burst their chains 

and be free." In 1822 our gov- 
ernment recognized their inde- 
pendence. 

318. Danger from Europe. In 
the meantime rulers in Europe 
formed the "Holy Alliance" 
to put down rebellions. They 
seemed about to help Spain con- 
quer these new republics in South 
America and make them her 
colonies again. Russia, too, was 
pushing along down the Pacific 
coast of North America. She 
already held Alaska and now 

He won independence for Ihree counlries j i i • c i-i 

in South America: Colombia, announccd hcr claim as tar south 

Peru, and Bolivia _ 

as 51°. 

It was an anxious moment for North and South Amer- 
ica. Was there to be freedom and self-government on 
this side of the Atlantic, or were kings to extend their 
power here? Fortunately England was not in the Holj'' 
Alliance, and would not approve any plans to conquer the 
South American repubHcs for Spain. All eyes were now 
turned to the United States. What would we do? 

319. The Monroe Doctrine. The answer was boldly 
given by President Monroe in his message to Congress, 
December 2, 1823. 

To the Holy AlHance'he declared that "any attempt 
to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere" 
would be viewed "as dangerous to our peace and safety." 

To the South American republics he promised that 
any effort to oppress them would be considered as show- 



SIMON BOLIVAR 



Old Parties Take New Names 251 

ing "an unfriendly disposition toward the United States." 
To Russia, who was claiming a part of the Pacific coast, 
he declared that the American continents are "not to be 
considered as subjects for future colonization by any 
European powers." 

Thus the United States, with the sympathy of England, 
took its stand for liberty in America, both North and 
South. Russia promptly agreed not to claim any land 
south of 54'^ 40', which was to remain the southern 
boundary of Alaska. The Holy Alliance gave up its 
plans against the South American republics, and Spain 
finally recognized their independence. 

Before making this famous statement of our position, 
Monroe consulted freely with his secretary of state, 
John Quincy Adams, and others. Indeed the Monroe 
Doctrine expressed the opinion of the whole United 
States then and has long remained the keynote of our 
foreign policy. i"'- Circumstances may alter its details, 
but the great principles remain: a friendly and helpful 
policy toward our neighbors, and the firm resolve that 
American affairs must be free from foreign control. 

OLD PARTIES TAKE NEW NAMES 

320. Presidential contest in 1824. Five great men, all 
Republicans (§260), wished to succeed James Monroe as 
president. From the East came John Quincy Adams, 
who, once a Federalist, had become a Republican in the 
struggle over the Embargo (§286) ; from the West, Henry 
Clay, young and ambitious, a great orator, and now 
speaker of the House of Representatives ; from the South, 
William H. Crawford, Monroe's secretary of war, and 
one of the ablest men in his cabinet, and John C. Calhoun 
of South Carolina, an able leader and a true patriot. 



252 



A Neiv Era 



Calhoun withdrew from the presidential contest and was 
elected vice-president. Tennessee offered a man whose 




K^;;::':'! Adams 
[ I Jackson 
|;^-- [ Crawford 
r I Clay 



THE ELECTORAL VOTE FOR PRESIDENT IN 1 824 

name thrilled the people: Jackson, the hero of New 
Orleans, who had supporters in all parts of the nation. 

No man received a majority of votes, and the election 
went to the House of Representatives (Constitution, 
Amendment, Art. XII), where Clay's influence was 
supreme. John Quincy Adams was elected. 

321. Influence of the rising West. Only one of these 
great men came from the East. We have seen the rush 
of new States into the Union (§307). Not only did these 
States have great influence, but their influence was of a 
peculiar kind : they were more democratic than the older 
States. In the West everybody had a right to vote. For 
the struggle with the Indians and the harder struggle 
with the wilderness made all the people live in much the 
same way, and few persons could "put on airs." Not 
only did everybody vote, but every one had the right to 
hold office, if he could get elected. To give everybody a 



Jacksonian Democracy 



253 



chance, no one was expected to hold office long. Even 
the older States in this period began to permit more 
people to vote, and soon there was "manhood suffrage." 

322. Democrats and Whigs. The Republican party 
had, for a long time, two sets of voters. Now that their 
old opponents were dead they split into separate parties, 
taking on new names. Those who believed in strict con- 
struction, who still favored State authority where possible, 
and who believed in State banks and a low tariff generally, 
gathered around Andrew Jackson 
under the name of Democrats. 

The people believing in protec- 
tion to American industry, in a 
United States bank, and that 
Congress should vote money for 
roads and canals, gathered around 
Adams and Clay as leaders and 
called themselves National Repub- 
licans. Thus both parties had 
kept the ideas of the old parties 
but had found new names. After 
a defeat or two the National 
Republicans took the old Revolu- 
tionary name "Whigs," and fol- 




From the painting by 
John Singleton Copley 



JOHN QUINCY ADAMS 



lowed the leadership of young He served as commissioner at Chem 
'^ ^ o ^jjj i^^gy gj Secretary oj Stale 



under President Monroe 



"Harry of the West, " as Clay was 

called, in his struggle for the above-named measures, 

which he called the "American System." 



JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY 



323. A new kind of candidate for the presidency. 

The moment Jackson was defeated his friends went to 
work to win the next election. Jackson was not like the 



254 



A New Era 



men who had been president. He was a frontier soldier. 
He had lived in a log cabin, had defeated the Indians, 




THE VOTE OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES IN THE ELECTION OF 1825 

and whipped the British. He had been acquainted with 
poverty and toil. The men against him had long held 
office; they did not sympathize with the common people. 
Besides, in 1824 Jackson had won more votes than 
any other candidate. 

324. A new kind of campaign (1825-1828). This 
campaign continued three years. The people were calling 
for Jackson, said his managers. "Jackson committees" 
were formed in different parts of the country to get up 
public meetings and publish arguments for Jackson. 
"Pole raisings" were riow begun; the favorite was a 
hickory pole, because of Jackson's nickname, "Old 
Hickory." 

325. Jackson at New Orleans again. The gathering 
at New Orleans to celebrate Jackson's victory, January 8, 
1828, went far beyond all others in numbers and 



Jacksonian Democracy 



255 



enthusiasm. From Tennessee to New Orleans by river 
was one celebration after another. A committee of citizens 
went up the Mississippi to Natchez to meet the candidate 
and his party on the way down the river. Here the State 
of Mississippi gave the old hero a grand welcome; there 
were processions, dinners, speeches, and a ball. 

Then the boats dropped down the river to New Orleans. 
A great fleet of steamboats went out to meet him. The 
housetops and the river banks were crowded. Visitors 
from far New York had come to bring the welcome 
of that State. Other States were represented in the 
greetings of committees. Distinguished men, and vet- 
erans who had stood with Jackson when the British had 




A COMMITTEE OF CITIZENS BIDS JACKSON WELCOME 

Jackson was known as "Old Hickory" 

charged, came to greet the great commander. The ring- 
ing of bells, the booming of cannon, and the waves of 
human huzzas were overpowering. For four days the 
celebration went on. 



256 



A New Era 




It was the misfortune of the noble-minded John Quincy 
Adams to be caught in this rising tide of democratic 

sentiment. As president he 
had refused to do anything 
whatever to help elect himself 
president again. He even 
refused to turn men out of 
office because they worked for 
Jackson. The result was that 
Jackson won by an electoral 
vote of more than two to one. 
326. A new kind of president 
(1829-1837). Jackson's election 
showed that the old kind of 
president, with his stately man- 
ners, was gone, and that the 
plainer ways of the West were 
to rule in the White House. ■•'•^ 
Jackson felt that he was the people's choice and must 
do something for them. They felt that, somehow, he 
had saved the country from a great danger. The people 
came in great crowds to see him inaugurated. They 
pushed into the White House, and climbed upon the fine 
furniture with their muddy boots. But their hearts 
were sound and their minds siirewd. They were the 
backbone and sinew of a great nation. 

327. The "spoils system." A New York politician 
had declared that "to the victors belong the spoils" of 
office. No president had ever before put men in or 
out of office for party reasons. Jackson thought it right 
to reward his political friends, but in so doing he injured 
the business of the government. Some of the men 
he appointed were not able and some were dishonest. 



From a painting by Thomas Sully 

ANDREW J.ACKSON 

Jackson won honors in the War of 1812 

and against the Creeks and held 

many State and national offi es 



Jacksonian Democracy 



257 



But the "spoils system" tied the common man to the 
national government and made him feel that it could 
help him. 

328. National conventions and platforms. Clay was 
pitted against Jackson in 1832. After Washington, 
candidates had been put in nomination by members of 
Congress holding a caucus of their party. But this way 
was not democratic enough, and in the beginning of this 
period it died out. 

The Anti- Masonic party held the first national nomi- 
nating convention ( 1 83 1 ) . In the same year the National 
Republicans met at Baltimore and unanimously nomi- 
nated Henry Clay 
for president. 
They declared in 
favor of "protec- 
tion" and a sys- 
tem of internal 
improvements, 
denounced the 
"spoils system," 
and favored a 
United States 
bank. Jackson's 
party held a con- 
vention in the same city, endorsed Jackson, and named 
Van Buren for the vice-presidency. The only real ques- 
tion in the election was the United States Bank. 
Jackson won the election and declared that the people, 
by electing him, had commanded him to destroy the 
United States Bank. 

329. Jackson kills the United States Bank. The 
frontier people had long felt the bank was dangerous 




THE HERMITAGE NEAR NASHVILLE 

This historic house, the home of Andrew Jackson, is now 
owned by the State of Tennessee 



258 A New Era 

to poor men. Jackson sympathized with this feeling. 
He declared the bank unconstitutional, vetoed a bill for 
its recharter, and removed the United States money 
from the bank (1836). The United States Bank came 
to an end because its very life had depended on the 
government money. 

330. "Wildcat" banking; the first great panic (1837). 
State banks now began to spring up. Certain of them 
were called "pet banks," because Jackson put the money 
of the United States in them. The national debt being 
now fully paid. Congress voted several million dollars 
of surplus to the States. Paper money, that is, prom- 
ises to pay, was now easy to borrow. People began to 
borrow in order to "speculate." Persons grew rich by 
buying public lands at $1.25 an acre and selling them 
at a much higher rate. These lands rapidly rose in 
value. Everybody was borrowing, to buy and sell and 
grow rich. States borrowed vast sums to carry on 
internal improvements, some of them unnecessary. 

Jackson found that the government was being paid for 
its lands in the paper money of the banks. These 
"promises to pay" had lost much in value. There was 
danger that the banks would fail and their money be 
worth nothing. The President acted quickly and issued 
his famous "Specie Circular" (1836) which instructed 
land agents to accept only gold and silver in payment 
for public lands. 

This order created a sudden demand for gold and silver. 
There was not gold and silver enough to meet the de- 
mand. Bank after bank failed — "pet" banks and all. 
Hundreds of people were ruined, business houses were 
bankrupt, factories closed their doors, railroad and canal 
building stopped, and thousands of laborers were thrown 



Jacksonian Democracy 



259 




out of work. The poor suffered during the winter and 
bread riots occurred in New York. The people called 
loudlyfor , — ^,==^ 



relief from the 
government. 

331. Van 
Buren and the 
independent 
treasury. Jack- 
son's bosom 
friend in poli- 
tics was elected 
president^** 
(1837-1841). 
He called Con- 
gress in extra 
session (Con- 
stitution, Art. II, §3) and recommended a separate 
treasury for the United States for the safe keeping of its 
money. But this plan did not give the suffering people 
relief. To any plan of the government for helping the 
people Van Buren turned a deaf ear. 

332. The log cabin and hard cider campaign (1840). 
In 1837 the Ohio Whigs presented General William Henry 
Harrison to the country as a candidate. In 1838 thou- 
sands upon thousands greeted Harrison upon his old 
battle field of Tippecanoe (§290), and in 1840 the Whigs, 
meeting at Harrisburg, made him their standard bearer. 

A campaign opened more exciting than any Jackson 
campaign. Harrison, too, was a popular hero. He had 
lived upon the frontier, beaten the Indians, and defeated 
the British on Canadian soil. He was now a plain farmer 
with "the latchstring always out" to any veteran. 



BREAD RIOTS IN NEW YORK CITY 

A result of the panic of 1837 



26o 



A New Era 



Van Buren was the "little aristocrat" who had always 
held office, lived in a palace, ridden in fine carriages, and 
"fared sumptuously every day," while the laborer was 
without work and the business man a bankrupt. 

But the Democrats had no orators the equals of Clay 
and Webster. Catchy campaign songs were now intro- 
duced and aroused immense 
enthusiasm. The Whigs ap- 
pealed to patriotic feeling 
by holding meetings on 
battle fields. More than 
100,000 people, some from 
distant States, joined in the 
Bunker Hill jubilee. Every 
procession had its log cabin"'-' 
on wheels, with its latch- 
string hanging out and 
with coonskins tacked on its 
door, and a barrel of hard 
cider for refreshment. Noth- 
ing could stop the enthusi- 
asm. The Whigs won with 
a popular majority of over 
140,000, and almost four 
times as many electoral votes as the Democrats. 

333. The meaning of the campaign of 1840. Harri- 
son's election showed that the common man was taking 
deeper interest in politics than ever before. Every 
successful candidate must win his support. 

Henry Clay in the Senate talked as Jackson had talked 
(§329), for he declared when speaking against the inde- 
pendent treasury that "the Nation wills the repeal of 
the measure, the Nation commands the repeal of the 




From a portrait by Daniel Huntington 
M.\RTIN VAN BUREN 
It is said of Van Buren "No other man has 
held so many high national offices" 



Jacksonian Democracy 



261 




From a painting by Hoyt 
WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON 
Harrison was a frontier hero. He was the first 



measure, and the Nation de- 
crees the repeal of the meas- 
ure, and the representatives 
of nineteen States were sent 
here instructed to repeal it." 

But in spite of their sweep- 
ing victory the Whigs failed 
to carry any of their pet 
measures (§322). Harrison 
died after a month in office 
and the Whig leaders quar- 
reled with John Tyler of Vir- 
ginia, who succeeded him. 

334. More proof s of Dem- 
ocratic tendencies. Two 

thirds of the men of voting governor of Indiana Territory 

age could not vote in Rhode Island because they were not 

landholders (§255). The non- 
voters and the voters each chose 
a governor. Both parties flew 
to arms, but on the approach of 
United States troops the non- 
voters deserted Dorr, their gov- 
ernor. He was condemned for 
treason, but pardoned. Men saw 
it was time for a new constitution. 
Along the Hudson farmers still 
paid rent to the descendants of 
the patroons. The anti-renters 
resisted the officers sent to collect 
the rent. The trouble was finally 
settled by permitting the renters 
to buy out the proprietors (§87). 




From a painting by Hart 
JOHN TYLER 
Tyler signed the joint resolution for the 
admission of Texas to the Union 



11 



262 Sectional Differences 

SECTIONAL DIFFERENCES 

NORTH, SOUTH. AND WEST DIFFER 

335. The three sections of the country. As our coun- 
try grew, men began to see that it was made up of three 




NORTHERN INDUSTRY 0i 

Making fabrics from southern cotton 

sections : the North, the South, and the West. These had 
much in common, for the people were all Americans. 
But they differed in their ways of living and often in what 
they wished the government to do for them. 

The sturdy westerner pushed boldly into the wilderness, 
over the mountains and down the streams beyond. He 
cleared away the forests, cultivated the soil, and founded 
settlements that later became busy towns and cities. 
His Hfe was hard; but it was full of vigor and freedom. 
He was a great lover of liberty and equality. He looked 
to the government to help him build roads and to secure 
for him the use of the rivers. He wished to go back and 
forth and trade with the rest of the world. 

336. What the North expected. In the older States 
of the North life was different. Here, as elsewhere in 
America, there were many farmers. But there were 
also many others who made their living by trade. These 



North, South, and West Differ 



263 



men sent their ships up and down the coast and to 
distant countries. They carried the products of one sec- 
tion to another, bringing back other things in exchange. 
Prosperous towns grew up around the good seaports, and 
some of the people became wealthy. With the use of 
machinery came another class, the manufacturers. They 
were soon to become as important as the traders. At 
first their progress was slow until the Embargo and the 
War of 1 81 2 stopped our trade with other countries. 
This compelled us to buy at hom^e. Then they prospered. 
Naturally the people of this section expected the govern- 
ment to do everything possible to extend their trade and 
to help their manufactures. 

337. What the South expected. In the South there 
were few factories. The chief business was farming. 
There were many small .,_ 

fanns on which the work 
was done by white laborers. 
But there were also large 
plantations on which the 
manual labor was done by 
slaves. The owners, or 
planters, often lived in 
great comfort. They were 
proud of their homes and 
liked the life they led. 
They exchanged their 
cotton, tobacco, rice, and 
other products for manufactured goods. These goods 
were made in the North or in foreign countries. There 
were some cities and a good many towns, but these relied 
for their business chiefly on the trade of the surrounding 
farms. The planters took a lively interest in public 




From a photograph 



SOUTHERN INDUSTRY 



264 Sectional Differences 

affairs, and discussed with keenness the political questions 
of the day. They asked little from the government. 
They thought that it should not interfere with their 
life, or make it harder for them to sell what they raised 
or to buy what they needed. 

THE TARIFF AND NULLIFICATION 

338. Conflicting interests. It was a hard task to 
govern the whole country so as to satisfy each of these 
sections. Each was apt to think its interests neglected 
and to become deeply stirred if the injury seemed serious. 

This was illustrated by the tariff question in the years 
that followed the war of 1 8 1 2 . Peace, which came in 1 8 1 5 , 
brought trouble for the manufacturers. They had to com- 
pete with the cheap goods that now came from abroad. 
They appealed to the government. But when in 181 6 
Congress raised the duties on foreign goods, the South in 
turn grew restless. Southern men did very little manu- 
facturing, and therefore did not feel the danger from 
cheap goods. They reasoned that the higher duties would 
make them pay more, not only for imported goods but 
also for those made in the North. This seemed to them 
like taxing one section to make another rich. They did 
not reach this conclusion suddenly. They were willing 
to give some help to the manufacturers in the crisis right 
after the war. But when the tariff was raised again in 
1824 and still further advanced in 1828, they felt wronged 
and grew angry. 

339. The South Carolina Exposition. The most deter- 
mined opposition was made in South Carolina. Men 
discussed the situation in the newspapers, around their 
firesides, and in public meetings. Finally, in December, 
1828, that State sent forth a statement which soon became 



The Tariff ayid Nullification 



265 




known far and wide as "The South CaroHna Exposition." 
It was really written by John C. Calhoun, then vice-presi- 
dent of the United States, and one of the ablest men 
of his day. It showed how 
heavily the tariff bore on the 
Southern States. Next it set 
forth the reasons of the 
Southern men for believing 
that Congress had no right to 
pass such a bill. Last, it said 
that South Carolina had the 
right to declare it "null," that 
is, not binding, and to refuse 
to obey it. 

Meanwhile, however, Jackson 
had been elected president. So 
South Carolina, having sent 
forth this warning, waited to 
see whether under his influence 
the tariff would be changed. 

340. The Hayne-Webster debate. The suggestion that 
a State might resist an act of Congress set men to dis- 
cussing how much power a State has. The question came 
up in the United States Senate. It led to a famous 
debate between Robert Y. Hayne of South Carolina and 
Daniel Webster of Massachusetts. People came from a 
distance to hear them. They spoke to a packed Senate 
chamber and there was scarcely room to stand, either 
on the floor or in the galleries. 

Hayne defended with great skill and eloquence the 
stand taken by his State. He was a brilliant orator and 
in this debate was at his best. His voice was musical, 
his figure full of grace. There was a charm in his manner 



From a photograph by Brad 

JOHN C. CALHOUN 

A "war hawk" in the War of 1812, and 

one of the three greatest statesmen 

of the Middle Period 



266 



Sectional Differences 




ROBERT YOUNG HAYNE 

A great orator, a United States senator, and 
governor of South Carolina 



that was hard to resist as 
he spoke of the rights of the 
States and the importance 
of preserving them. When 
he ended, his friends could 
easily be known by their 
joyous and confident air. 
In reply Webster set forth, 
as only a master could, the 
claims of our national gov- 
ernment. He was a won- 
derful orator by nature and 
by training. His person 
was commanding. His fine 
figure, massive head, and 

large and deep-set eyes attracted attention the moment 

he rose. When he began to 

speak, the deep tones of his 

voice gave dignity to every 

word. Calmly, earnestly he 

argued that no state ever had 

the right to interfere with an 

act of Congress. Then with 

deep feeling he portrayed the 

glories of a strong and lasting 

union, closing with the memor- 
able words, ' ' Liberty and union, 

nowandforever, oneandinsepa- 

rable." It was a great speech; 

and now the supporters of the 

"Defender of the Constitu- 

, • , ) . > ■• , , From a daguerreotype 

tion walked down the streets daniel webster 

with a firmer, bolder air ^''^ greatest orator and constitutional 

' ".ii . lawyer tn Amertca 




The Tariff and Nullification 267 

341. Jackson's toast. The South CaroHna leaders 
beHeved that President Jackson was not friendly to high 
tariff duties. They knew it would help their cause if 
he would come out in their favor. Therefore they 
invited him to a great dinner on Jefferson's birthday. 
After many others had spoken of the rights of the States, 
they called on him to speak. To their dismay he rose 
and proposed as his toast : ' ' Our Federal Union : it must 
be preserved." It was Jackson's warning. They under- 
stood it and ceased to hope for his help. 

342. Nullification. Still they waited to see whether 
the duties would be lowered. At last in 1832 Congress 
made some changes in the law. They did not satisfy 
the leaders in South Carolina, who regarded the duties 
as still unjust. A State convention was called. It 
declared the tariff law null, or not binding, within the 
State after a certain date. It also forbade any one to 
enforce it there. This convention declared that if force 
should be employed to carry out the law, the State would 
withdraw from the Union. 

Jackson was not the man to remain quiet when his 
power was defied. In a vigorous proclamation he denied 
the right of South Carolina to nullify a national law or to 
leave the Union. He said in very plain language that the 
law would be enforced. Meanwhile he sent General 
Scott to Charleston and ordered some war vessels there. 
Then he asked Congress to give him full authority to 
use the army and navy if necessary. 

343. The compromise. Excitement spread through the 
country. In the North, Jackson was praised even by 
many wHo had not liked him before. In the South, 
many sympathized with South Carolina, but many 
others thought the State had gone too far. 



2 68 Sectional Differences 

A bill was introduced in Congress giving Jackson the 
power that he asked. Some called it the "Force Bill." 
A clash seemed bound to come and no one could tell 
what it might lead to. 

At this critical moment Henry Clay, the ' ' Peacemaker," 
came forward with a compromise. He suggested that the 
tariff be reduced gradually during the next ten years. 
At the end of that time the duties would be neither 
very high nor very low. A law carrying out this idea 
was passed by Congress and became the Compromise 
Tariff of 1833. On the same day also the "Force Bill" 
was passed. Thus at the same time the President's 
hands were strengthened to enforce the law and the law 
was so changed as to be more easily accepted by South 
Carolina. She repealed the Ordinance of Nullification 
and the excitement came to an end. 

SLAVERY AND ABOLITION 

344. Slavery north and south. In early days there 
were slaves in all the colonies. But the North did not suit 
them and few were carried there. This made it easy to 
free them, and one northern State after another did so. 

In the South the slaves made good hands for the 
tobacco, cotton, or rice fields. Large numbers were 
imported, and they became an important part of planta- 
tion life. It therefore became a more difficult matter to 
set them free. Many southerners were opposed to slav- 
ery. State laws were passed to protect the slaves from 
cruelty, and public opinion condemned those who treated 
them badly. Some freed their own slaves. Many 
sought to find a way by which all the slaves, noW number- 
ing between 2,000,000 and 3,000,000, might be given 
their liberty gradually and safely. 



Slavery and Abolition 269 

345. The Abolitionists. But now a new class of anti- 
slavery men appeared in the North. These men wished 
all slaves freed at once, without regard to consequences. 
These men were called Abolitionists. Their leader was 
William Lloyd Garrison. He published a fiery paper 
called The Liberator. In it he called the Constitution of 
the United States "a covenant with death and an agree- 
ment with hell," because it recognized slavery. 

346. What the North thought. Many people in the 
North thought the Abolitionists too hasty and unreason- 
able. Some used force against them, broke up their 
meetings, and destroyed their printing presses. Lovejoy, 
who published an anti-slavery paper in Illinois, was killed. 
Garrison was dragged through the streets of Boston with 
a rope around his neck and barely escaped hanging. But 
others were deeply impressed by what the Abolitionists 
said. These organized many anti-slavery societies and 
sent their writings into the South. 

347. What the South thought. The demand that all 
the slaves be suddenly freed seemed to southern men 
the height of madness, and sure, if granted, to bring ruin 
on the country. They feared that even continued dis- 
cussion of the subject might lead to strife between the 
races. There had recently been an uprising in Virginia 
led by a negro, Nat Turner (183 1). In this affair fully 
sixty white people had been killed, and a still larger 
number of negroes, before it was stopped. 

The southerners therefore were deeply stirred by the 
Abolitionists in the North. They resented their attempts 
to send anti-slavery papers and pictures into the South. 
In Charleston, South Carolina, a crowd of men broke 
into the post-office and seized a mail bag filled with them. 
They took them into the street and burned them. 



270 



Western Problems 



WESTERN PROBLEMS 

TEXAS AND OREGON 

348. Going westward. While Jackson was president, 
pioneers began to press eagerly into the Far West. The 
Middle States had filled up after the War of 181 2. Now 
bold men pushed on into the wilder country beyond the 
Mississippi and even across the Rocky Mountains. 
Hunters and traders found their way across the new lands. 




EARLY TRAILS LEADING TO THE PACIFIC COAST 



With them went missionaries to the Indians. Close 
behind came hardy settlers. 

349. Western trails. These pioneers found the Indian 
trails the easiest to follow. Those bound for the great 



Texas and Oregon 



271 



Northwest journeyed up the Missouri River. They 
crossed through the great South Pass in the Rockies to 
Oregon or northern California. Others turned from the 
Missouri more to the southward across the plains to the 
ancient town of Santa Fe. Here was a lively trade with 
the natives. Still others, turning even more to the south- 
ward, crossed from Louisiana and Arkansas into Texas. 

350. Texas wins independence. Texas, the nearest of 
these regions, earliest attracted settlers in large numbers. 
Moses Austin and his son, Stephen, were the leaders in 
this movement. They had secured large land grants from 




PAPER MONEY ISSUED BY THE REPUBLIC OF TEXAS 

Mexico. 1*"* Stephen Austin had brought in many settlers, 
and others followed rapidly. Texas was at this time a part 
of Mexico, and the Mexicans at first treated the new- 
comers well. But when they increased rapidly, Mexico 
grew afraid they would take Texas. So she treated them 
harshly and tried to keep others from coming. 

The Texans boldly declared their independence. 
Hundreds of daring spirits rushed to their aid. Among 
these were leaders such as Bowie, Travis, Crockett, 
and Houston. A Mexican army invaded the State, but 
the Texans fought heroically to defend it. San Antonio 
was the place of a wonderful struggle — the storming of 



272 



Western Problems 




THE ALAMO, SAN ANTONIO 



the Alamo by the Spanish. The Alamo was an old 

Spanish mission. Suddenly Santa Anna appeared with 

2,500 men and 
demanded its sur- 
render. Travis 
answered with a 
cannon shot and 
Santa Anna ran 
up the ' ' blood-red 
flag of no quarter. ' ' 
Travis had less 
than 200 men, but 
each man was a 

"dead shot." Travis sent out a last appeal: "I shall 

continue to hold it . . . or I will perish in its defense." 
The Mexicans stormed the mission wall from all sides. 

Twice they were beaten back but the third time they 

went over and the Texans re- 
tired to the church. They piled 

the dead high with their rifles. 

Every foot of ground was fought 

over until the last Texan fell. 

Travis and Bonham and Bowie 

and Crockett all died like the 

heroes they were. 

On the monument to the ^ 

heroes of the Alamo are these 

words: "Thermopylae .had her ' 

messenger of defeat. The Alamo 

had none." 

JjUt a little later the 1 eXanS From a photograph by Brady 

J ., . 1 r SAM HOUSTON 

were avenged at the lamOUS Houston was the first president of the 

.... ro T-, TT "Lone Star Republic" as Texas 

battle 01 ban Jacinto. Here, was caiud 




Texas and Oregon 



273 




under the leadership of Sam Houston, they raised the 

cry, "Remember the Alamo," and rushed upon the 

Mexican army. Nothing could 

withstand their fury. Nearly half 

of the Mexicans were killed and \^ , 

the rest were captured, including 

Santa Anna. He was the presi- „^»j, 

dent of the republic of Mexico. \^ 

Texas was now free. 

351. The race for Oregon. In 
the far Northwest lay the broad the "lone star" j^lag 

and beautiful valley of the Colum- The standard of the Texas Republic 

bia River. This was called Oregon and was claimed by 
both England and the United States. It had long been 
little more than a hunting region, and had been occupied 
jointly by both countries. Now settlers from each 
began to make their way to it over the wild western 
trails. In a few years there were 7,000 hardy Ameri- 
cans living in the Oregon country, and we felt that it 
was important for us to own it. 

352. Two serious questions. Texas, now that it was 
free, wished to join the United States. Many people were 
ready to admit it. It was a fine country and far larger 
than any other State in the Union. The idea appealed 
to our pride and to our enthusiasm for growing toward 
the West. The Texans, too, were our own countrymen, 
and their bravery had won our admiration. 

Oregon also appealed to the popular fancy. Our 
settlers were actually taking possession of it. The 
demand rapidly grew that we should insist on our claim 
to all of it, even up to latitude 54° 40'. This found 
expression in the cry, "Fifty-four forty, or fight!" 

But in either case there would be serious difficulties. 



274 



Western Problems 



England refused to give up her claim to Oregon, and war 
seemed probable if we insisted on having it all. Mexico 
had never fully recognized the independence of Texas, 
and threatened war in case we annexed it. Moreover, 
Texas was slave territory, and that brought the slavery 
question into the discussion. Many in the South thought 
the admission of Texas would strengthen their section in 
Congress and were eager for it. Many in the North 
were unwilling to see any more slave territory added, 
and earnestly opposed this admission. 

353. Election of President 
Polk. While everybody was 
discussing these questions, the 
election of 1844 took place. 
The Whigs nominated their 
great leader, Henry Clay, the 
most popular man in the coun- 
try, and expected an easy 
victory. The Democrats nom- 
inated James K. Polk,''^'' of 
Tennessee. They demanded 
all of Oregon and the annex- 
ation of Texas. Polk was not 
so famous as Clay, but he had 
From a photograph by Brady j^ggj^ govcmor of his State and 

JAMES K. POLK . . ~ ,^^ 

Polk was the first -dark horse" to be prommcnt m Cougrcss. Thc 

elected president. He was an ttti • t • i i ji 

ardent expansionist WhlgS WCrC dlVldcd On the 

Texas question, and Clay, who wished to please them all, 
did not speak clearly about it. The result was that the 
anti-slavery men nominated James G. Birney. He drew 
many votes from Clay. The campaign was exciting and 
the result close. Polk was elected. He received 170 
electoral votes to 105 cast for Clay. 





THE 

OREGON BOUNDARY 

DISPUTE 

Scale of Miles. 



Copyrieiit. IStC. bj Raod. aj>. Nolly & Companj- 



Texas and Oregon 



275 



354. Annexation of Texas and compromise in Oregon. 

The election settled the question of annexation. 
Texas was admitted to the Union in 1845. This meant 
trouble with Mex- 
ico. To insist now 
on all of Oregon 
meant serious 
trouble with Eng- 
land. To avoid 
this a compromise 
was made with 
England. This 
made the forty- 
ninth degree of 
latitude the bound- 
ary throughout 
the Oregon region. 
All questions 
about the rest of 
the boundary to 
the Atlantic had 
been settled by the 
treaty of 1842. 
This was drawn up 
by Webster for us 
and by Ashburton 
for England. It 
was known as the 
Webster-Ashbur- 
ton Treaty. Our 
whole northern 

boundary was the texas boundary dispute 

•' Showing the places covered tn the campaigns of the Mexican 

now settled. i°* war of 1846 




276 



Western Problems 



THE WAR WITH MEXICO 

355. "War begins. Although Texas had won her in- 
dependence, Mexico had never agreed to it. Therefore 
Mexico'"^ was deeply offended when we annexed Texas. 
Her minister went home in anger and war seemed 
probable. Even then it might have been avoided but 
for a dispute as to the proper boundary of Texas. We 
claimed the Rio Grande, but Mexico said that Texas 

had never gone beyond the 
Nueces. Into the disputed 
territory President Polk sent 
General Zachary Taylor to 
maintain our claim to it. This 
gave new offense to the Mex- 
icans. They crossed the Rio 
Grande and attacked a small 
body of American soldiers, 
killing or capturing them all. 
356. The declaration of war. 
As soon as the news reached 
Washington, President Polk 
sent his famous message to 
Congress : ' ' Mexico has invad- 
ed our territory and shed 
American blood upon American soil." Congress declared 
that war existed (May 13, 1846), and provided for calling 
out volunteers. 

357. Taylor's victories. In the meantime the Mexicans 
sent more men across 'the Rio Grande. They soon 
outnumbered the little army under General Taylor. 
In spite of this they were badly beaten at Palo Alto 
(May 8, 1846), and the next day at Resaca de la Palma, 
and driven back across the river. 




From a photograpb 

ZACHARY TAYLOR 

Taylor was called "Old Rough and Ready." 

He was elected president on his 

record as a soldier 



The War with Mexico 



277 



Many volunteers now joined Taylor's army and he felt 
strong enough to pursue the Mexicans. Marching into 
their country, he followed them to Monterey. This was 
a strongly fortified town and was held by a large force. 
When Taylor attacked it, desperate fighting followed. 
The streets were barricaded and had to be stormed one 
by one. The strongly built homes were like so many 
small forts, and had to be taken separately. From roofs, 
from windows, from behind all sorts of protection, the 
Americans were fired on by the Mexicans. It took four 
days to force them to surrender (September 23). 

Taylor now pressed on toward the heart of Mexico. 
Santa Anna was once more in command of the Mexican 
forces and collected a large army to oppose our progress. 
He learned that a large part of Taylor's soldiers had been 
sent to join General Winfield Scott. He decided to 




GENERAL TAYLOR DIRECTING THE BATTLE OF BUENA VISTA 



strike a decisive blow. He therefore attacked Taylor 
in the mountain pass at Buena Vista (February 23, 1847). 



278 Western Problems 

The Mexicans fought bravely all day long, but our men 
beat back charge after charge, and when the sun set, still 
held their ground. During the night Santa Anna and 
his army slipped away and began a long retreat. Taylor 
had not lost a battle. 

358. Scott takes the Mexican capital. Before the last 
of these battles was fought, we were preparing another 
expedition against Mexico. It was to go by sea to Vera 
Cruz and thence to march against the capital of Mexico. 
It was a bold undertaking. Vera Cruz was strongly 
fortified and the city of Mexico still more so. The road 
between led over rough mountain passes, defended by 
frowning fortifications bristling with cannon. 

But General Winfield Scott, who was in command, was 
an able leader and nothing could stop his dashing sol- 
diers. Vera Cruz was captured after a bombardment of 
nine days, and the march begun for the Mexican capital, 
200 miles away. In a mountain pass of Cerro Gordo the 
Mexican army waited, confident that no one could drive 
them from their strong position. But our men climbed 
the heights, stormed their forts, and sent them in retreat 
toward the city of Mexico. There Santa Anna collected 
all his forces for a last desperate stand in defense of 
his capital. It was a beautiful city, protected by strong 
forts and almost impassable lakes and marshes. But 
resistance was useless. One by one the outlying posts 
were carried by our soldiers. Heights were scaled, 
bridges were stormed, and on September 14, 1847, our 
victorious army marched- into the city. Santa Anna had 
fled and Mexico was helpless. The stars and stripes 
waved over the ancient Mexican palace. 

359. The treaty of peace. It was not very hard to 
arrange the terms of peace. Mexico recognized that 



Problems after the War 



279 



Texas was a part of the United States and extended to the 
Rio Grande River. She also gave up to us California and 
New Mexico, which had been seized and occupied by us 
during the war. These included the land south of Oregon 









;, 1. X -- 

AN N.EX ED , . 1 8 4:5;: 







\ MEXICO 



TERRITORY GAINED BY THE TREATY OF PEACE, 1 8 48 

and lying between Texas and the Pacific. In return for 
this land we agreed to pay to Mexico $15,000,000. We 
also agreed to pay the claims that some of our citizens 
had against the Mexican government amounting to 
$3,000,000 more. These points were written down in 
a treaty. This treaty was made in the little town 
of Guadalupe Hidalgo, near the city of Mexico, on 
February 2, 1848. It was approved by both countries, 
and the war was at an end. 

PROBLEMS AFTER THE WAR 

360. Slavery and the new lands. The treaty of peace 
gave us an undisputed title to a vast new area, about as 



2 8o Western Problems 

large as the Louisiana Purchase. It was a splendid new 
possession but it brought with it hard problems. Chief 
of these was the question whether slavery should exist 
in the new lands. 

In Texas the matter was already settled, for it had been 
a slave State when admitted to our Union. But the rest 
of the new country was unorganized territory, and in 
it the question was still not settled. 

361. Northern opposition. For some time there had 
been in the North a growing feeling against slavery. 
Some felt that it ought not to go into the new territories. 
Men who felt this way were opposed to our adding any 
new territory or State unless slavery were forbidden in 
it. They had tried to prevent the annexation of Texas. 
During the Mexican War they had urged that Congress 
prohibit slavery in any territory to be obtained as a 
result of the war. In both plans they failed, but they 
were not discouraged. Believing firmly that they were 
right they now redoubled their efforts to keep slavery 
out of the new territory. 

362. Southern opinion. There was in the South a 
growing feeling that in some way the number of slave 
States must be increased. Many southerners believed 
that the Abolitionists were gaining strength. They feared 
that in time the North might be able to carry through 
Congress laws in regard to slavery that would be very 
dangerous to the South. The best safeguard against 
this seemed to be to keep the slave States as strong in 
Congress as the free States (§309). In the great North- 
west free States were rapidly forming. Where could 
the slave States be found to balance these? The ad- 
mission of Texas helped, but was not enough.'"' Now, 
therefore, the South was anxious that slavery should not 



Problems after the War 281 

be excluded from the rest of the new lands, then known 
as California and New Mexico. 

363. Taylor elected president. The war had scarcely- 
ended when the campaign of 1848 began. Neither the 
Whigs nor the Democrats had time to make up their 
minds carefully on this new slavery issue. Therefore 
neither took a definite stand in regard to it. The Demo- 
crats nominated Lewis Cass, the Whigs, General Zachary 
Taylor. Taylor was not a statesman but he had shown 
abiHty in the war and had come out of it a military hero. 
He was honest and frank. His soldiers, with a touch of 
affection, called him "Old Rough and Ready." He now 
proved a popular candidate and was elected. 

364. The Free Soil party. More important than the 
election of Taylor was the appearance during this cam- 
paign of a new political party. When both the old parties 
failed to speak out on the slavery question, the most 
earnest anti-slavery men decided that it was time to form 
a new one. Meeting in Buffalo (August, 1848), they 
organized the Free Soil party, and nominated Martin 
Van Buren for president (§331). They demanded that 
Congress should forbid slavery in the new territories and 
that no more slave States should be admitted to the 
Union. Their motto was, "Free soil, free speech, free 
labor, and free men." Van Buren did not get nearly so 
many votes as either Cass or Taylor.'" 

365. Gold in California. In the meantime events 
began to move rapidly in California. In 1848 a workman 
digging a mill-race saw yellow particles in the sand. 
Gathering some of them, he carried them to the owner 
of the mill, who found that they were gold. The news 
spread to San Francisco, a hundred miles off, and up and 
down the coast. The "gold fever" raged. Everybody 



282 



Western Problems 



wanted to dig gold. In great haste men left the lumber 
camps and the sawmills. Farms and shops were aban- 
doned. Vessels coming into port lost their crews before 

the cargoes could 
be unloaded. Even 
soldiers deserted 
their posts. Within 
four months there 
were 4,000 people 
on the Sacramento 
River. They lived 
m huts or tents, and dug gold 
with all sorts of instruments 
^ from a knife to a pick-axe. 
366. The "Forty-Niners." 
^ Early m 1 8 ^.g the news spread 
^^:^^'^'" through the Eastern States and 
the rush to the gold fields began. 
Many followed the trails across 
the plains and over the mountains. Others braved the 
hardships of the journey in great canvas-covered wagons, 
called "prairie schooners," or on horseback, or even on 
foot. Some went by way of Panama ; still others crowded 
the ships that sailed around South America. 

367. A government for California; the slavery ques- 
tion. By the end of the year California had a hardy 
population of 100,000, who badly needed an orderly 
government. Congress ,had not yet given them one 
because the North and the South could not agree about 
slavery there. The Californians made for themselves a 
State government which forbade slavery, and asked to 
be admitted to the Union. 

This did not please the southern people. They had 




A CALIFORNIA MINING CAMP OF '49 



Problems after the War 283 

hoped to carry their slaves at least into the southern half 
of the territory of California. If it should now be ad- 
mitted as a State with the government it had made for 
itself, they would lose the whole of it. What if slavery 
should be shut out also from the other lands that had 
been won from Mexico? What would become of the 
balance of power between the North and the South? 
Some thought the Missouri Compromise line ought to 
be extended to the Pacific. Others began to say with 
Calhoun that Congress had no right to prohibit slavery 
in any territory. Some even talked of leaving the Union 
unless the rights they claimed were granted. 

Meanwhile northern men were growing more outspoken 
in their opposition to slavery. Some urged the imme- 
diate admission of California as a free State. Others 
demanded the abolition of the slave trade in the District 
of Columbia. Still others wished Congress to prohibit 
slavery in all territories. Some extreme Abolitionists 
insisted that the Northern States should withdraw from 
the Union in order to escape the blame for slavery. 

368. The runaway slaves. Nothing increased the 
hard feeling between the North and the South more 
than the runaway slaves. When they fled into the 
Northern States, their masters felt that the northern 
people ought to help get them back. The Constitution 
of the United States required this and the laws of Con- 
gress provided for it. Many northern people thought 
slavery wrong and were slow to help catch the runaways. 
Some even helped them in their flight. The lines of 
escape along which the slaves were helped were called, in 
the language of the day, the "Underground Railroads." 

369. The points to be settled. Amidst the excitement 
and confusion it gradually became clear that five great 



284 



Western Problems 



questions had to be settled; (i) What should be done 
with California? (2) Should slavery be permitted in 
the territories, Utah and New Mexico? (3) Should the 
slave trade go on in the District of Columbia? (4) What 
should be done about runaway slaves? (5) What should 
be the boundary line between Texas and New Mexico? 
370. A great meeting of Congress (1850). Never had 
there been in Congress men who were better able to deal 




JEFFERSON DAVIS IN THE COMPROMISE DEBATES IN CONGRESS 

with big questions. Henry Clay had retired from public 
life, an aged and broken man. Now, when the mutterings 
of the political storm reached his State, her legislature 
unanimously voted to send him back to the Senate. 
He accepted the honor and resolved to give his last days 
to bringing about peace between the sections. 

Besides Clay, there were Webster, the idol of New 
England; Calhoun, the leader of the South for many 
years, and Thomas H. Benton, the great senator from 
Missouri. Younger men were there also. Jefferson 
Davis from Mississippi, who was destined to become 



Problems after the War 285 

the leader of the Southern Confederacy; Stephen A. 
Douglas of Illinois, the most famous Democrat in the 
Northwest, and WilHam H. Seward and Salmon P. 
Chase, both soon to be leaders in the new Republican 
party. 

371. Famous debates in the Senate. On February 5, 
Henry Clay arose to address the Senate, which was filled 
to overflowing with visitors. Some had come hundreds 
of miles to hear the silver-tongued orator make his last 
appeal for peace between the North and the South. 
Clay knew that the country was in danger. With all 
his earnestness and skill he pleaded for a compromise 
which might make the parts of the country once more 
dwell together in harmony. For two days he spoke with 
an eloquence that stirred his audience. 

Next came John C. Calhoun, the great champion of 
States' Rights. He was too ill to speak, but a friend read 
his speech for him. It was an impressive scene. "There 
he sat motionless like a statue, with the hand of death 
upon him; — listening to his own words from another's 
mouth," anxiously watching their effect on the faces of 
the great audience. He declared that the Union was in 
danger, that the South was alarmed at the North's growing 
power and its increasing hostility to slavery. He asked 
for the South (i) the right to take slaves into the terri- 
tories, (2) a better law for the return of runaway slaves, 
(3) no more anti-slavery agitation. He declared, "If 
you of the North will not do this, then let our Southern 
States separate and depart in peace." No one doubted 
his sincerity. He spoke from the edge of the grave. 
Before the month was over he had passed away. 

Men had anxiously waited to hear what Webster would 
say. On the seventh of March he delivered his famous 



286 



Western Problems 



speech, "For the Union and the Constitution." He 
knew the value of the Union and loved it with his whole 
heart. He believed that it was now in danger. He 
denounced all who threatened it in the North and in the 
South, and urged each side to give up something for 
the sake of the common country. His speech pleased 
moderate men but offended bitterly the extreme anti- 
slavery men. 

372. New anti-slavery leaders. The anti-slavery men 
had hoped that Webster would side with them. Now 
in their disappointment they turned to Seward and 
Chase. Seward's speech excited widespread interest. 
He opposed all compromises with slavery, and startled 
the country by referring to "a higher law than the 
Constitution." Chase urged the prohibition of slavery 
in all territories and denounced the fugitive slave law. 




WEBSTER ADDRESSING THE SENATE ON THE 7TH OF MARCH 



373. The Compromise of 1850. While these debates 
were under way, President Taylor suddenly died and 



Problems after the War 



287 




Fillmore became president. He favored compromise, and 
his influence was soon felt. But to Henry Clay more 
than to any one else belongs 
the credit for the adoption 
by Congress of what became 
known as the Compromise 
of 1850. Its points were: 
(i) The admission of Califor- 
nia as a free State; (2) the 
organization of New Mexico 
and Utah into territories 
without mention of slavery; 
(j) the settlement of the 
boundary between Texas and 
New Mexico, and the pay- 
ment to Texas of $10,000,000 
for her claim to land thus 
given to New Mexico; (4) a 
new and more effective fugi- 
tive slave law; (5) the abolition of the slave trade in 
the District of Columbia. 

374. Effects of the Compromise. The country was glad 
when the Compromise measures passed. The majority 
of the people hoped, with Clay, that good feeling would 
return, as it had after the Missouri Compromise. They 
did what they could to encourage it. Union meetings 
were held, in which both Whigs and Democrats took part. 

The Compromise seemed to settle definitely all the 
points except the fugitive slave problem. This con- 
tinued to give trouble. The new law did not satisfy either 
the North or the South. It denied the negro the right of 
trial by jury. It ordered everybody, when needed, to 
aid in catching him, and punished those who helped him 



From a portrait by Jarvia 
MILLARD FILLMORE 

Thirteenth president of the United Slates 



Western Problems 



escape. This greatly displeased the anti-slavery men in 
the North. In many cases the law was openly violated. 
Help was given to the fugitive slaves. In some cases those 
who had been caught were even rescued. In the border 
States the work done by the "Underground Railroad" 
increased, and its branches spread in many directions. 

On the other hand, the slave owners in the South felt 
that the law did not accomplish its purpose. Many of 
their slaves still escaped. They 
blamed the people of the North for 
this, and especially the "Personal 
Liberty Laws," which some of the 
Northern States passed. These 
made it more difficult to catch the 
slaves and seemed to southerners 
to violate the law of Congress 
and even the Constitution of the 
United States. 

375. "Uncle Tom's Cabin." 
While bitter feelings were stirred on 
both sides by the runaway slave 
question, a book appeared which 
called every one's attention to it. 
This was Uncle Tom's Cabin. It 
was written by Harriet Beecher 
Stowe, a northern woman, who wished to show what 
slavery was as she understood it. It was an unfair 
picture of slavery, but the book was brilliantly written 
and made a deep impression. The Abolitionists praised 
the book. Southerners bitterly condemned it. 

376. Pierce elected president (1852). Both the old 
parties came out strongly in favor of the Compromise 
of 1850. The Whigs nominated General Winfield Scott, 




From an engraving 

FRANKLIN PIERCE 

Pierce was an able lawyer and a 
conservative polilician 




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n 


k, o 


y 


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—r ^: 




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. -^ 1 ■>, 














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^ y 
y_y 


8 


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U ft! 
> O 

< H 



2 (d S> =! 



o 2 



Growth iH Area and Population 



289 



the hero of the Mexican War; the Democrats, Franklin 
Pierce of New Hampshire. Twenty-seven States were 
carried by Pierce, and only four by Scott. It was an 
overwhelming victory. Men seemed . to feel that the 
Compromise was in some way safer in the hands of the 
Democrats and that Pierce was more likely than Scott to 
preserve good feeling between the sections. The Whigs 
lost two great leaders. Clay and Webster, during the cam- 
paign. Many Democrats who had voted with the Free 
Soil party for Van Buren in 1848 now returned to their 
old party. Men began to speak of a second ' ' era of good 
feeling" as they had done in the time of Monroe. Pres- 
ident Pierce promised to do his best to preserve harmony. 



GROWTH OF THE COUNTRY 

GROWTH IN AREA AND POPULATION 

377. Immigration and migration. From the adoption of 
the Constitution to 1850 the United States had a wonderful 




5MTu^«y'jii))|P"g3 

FORT DEARBORN, CHICAGO, AS A FRONTIER POST 

growth. During this period the area of our country had 
been increased more than three and a half times, and our 



290 



Growth of the Country 



population nearly eight times (§247). In i860 more than 
3 1 ,000,000 people were living in thirty-two States and nine 
territories. By this time two States and one territory 
(Washington) had been organized on the Pacific coast. 

American cities showed tremendous gains since 1790. 
New York was now the great commercial center of the 
country (§314) with more than 800,000 people. Chicago, 
only a frontier post in 1830, was, with 100,000 inhab- 
itants, already giving proof of the great city it was soon 
to become. There were now ten cities which ranged in 
population from 100,000 to 500,000. Three of these cities 
were located in the South : Baltimore, St. Louis, and New 
Orleans. 

The population of the North and of the South was 
about equal in 1 790, but in i860 the North had double the 
population of the South. This difference in the growth 
of the two sections arose in part from the fact that more 










ST. LOUIS IN 1840 



From a rare print 



Americans migrated from the South than from the North. 
But a greater cause lay in the ever-increasing immigration 



Growth in Area and Population 



291 



from Europe. This came largely to the North, because of 
existing industrial conditions there and, as a consequence, 
the great number 
and variety of oc- 
cupations open to 
newcomers. ^^' 

378. New Euro- 
pean immigration. 
From the begin- 
ning, America had 
been the land of 
promise to the poor 
and oppressed of all 
nations, but the 
majority of the col- 
onists were Eng- 
lish, or of English 
descent, and the 
settlers in the new 
States down to 
1820 had emigrated for the most part from the older 
States. 

But from 1830 to i860 immigrants came to the United 
States in large numbers from Ireland and Germany. 
' ' Potato famines ' ' in Ireland and revolutions in Germany 
sent many thousands to this country ^^^ to improve their 
condition. They brought many strange customs with 
them. In their ways of living and their worship many 
of them differed from Americans at that time. For the 
first time in our history immigrants began to settle in our 
cities and towns and to control politics. This aroused 
public sentiment for the safety of American institutions. 
We shall see later its effect on parties (§406). 




AN OLD FRENCH COURT YARD, NEW ORLEANS 



292 Growth of the Country 

379. The Mormons (1830-1847). In 1830 Joseph 
Smith organized the church of the Latter-Day Saints or 
Mormons. He proclaimed that an angel had shown him 
the hiding place of sacred plates, from which he trans- 
lated the Book of Mormon. The Mormons moved to 
Ohio, thence to Missouri, and then came back to Illinois 
(1839). But they practiced polygamy in Illinois. Their 
neighbors mobbed and shot Smith, and they left, under 
the leadership of Brigham Young, for the Great Salt 
Lake. Amid great hardships they reached this place 
(1847) and began the making of homes. Hundreds of 
flourishing towns, villages, and cities prove their courage 
and industry. They gave up polygamy before Utah was 
admitted to the Union (1896.) 

GROWTH IN MORALS AND RELIGION 

380. Progress in moral and religious life. This period 
is noted for improvement in the conduct of people of all 
classes, and particularly for the rise of a kindlier feeling 
toward the unfortunate. Richard M, Johnson of Ken- 
tucky was instrumental in having the nation abolish 
imprisonment for debt (§252). The States followed this 
noble example. Asylums for homeless children, for the 
aged, and for the insane was on the increase. Prisons 
were kept cleaner and prisoners better cared for (§252). 
They were no longer kept in idleness but were put to 
work and taught useful trades. At the same time that 
mistaken and at some times unjust practice of putting 
people in prison for debt was discontinued. 

Drunkenness was more common then than now, and 
strong drink was used at all social gatherings. At 
political rallies, particularly in the West, it circulated 
freely, and whiskey carried many a candidate into office. 



Growth in Morals and Religion 



293 



Even ministers used the "cup that inebriates" and no one 
thought of it as improper. To decrease this great evil, 



iSW"^^"' 




In 



After a painting by George Caleb Binsham 
Courtesy of the Mercantile Library St Louis 

STUMP SPEAKING IN MISSOURI 
Ihis painting the artist has faithfully pictured the manners and customs of 
Americans of his region and time 



societies to encourage total abstinence arose about 1824. 
By 1830 the temperance forces took on new life under 
the name of the Washingtonians. Gradually drinking 
came to be looked upon as an evil, and the movement 
for its prohibition began. In 1851 Maine was carried 
for prohibition. Then came the great war of 1861-65 
with its disturbing passions, and not until in our day has 
the movement for natipn-wide prohibition finally suc- 
ceeded (§§604, 617). 

381. The rise of the frontier camp meeting. The 
minister of the Gospel followed population westward. 
A preacher sometimes rode, astride his saddlebags, 
10 



294 



Growth of the Country 



around his district from twenty to thirty miles. On the 
frontiers reHgious gatherings called "camp meetings" 

were held. Fam- 
,:^5>^^ r. *' ilies left their 



^^^t?*^^ 




homes and jour- 
jt, neyed to the 



-^%:M^:MSf'^ ^-'^-^^ 




A FRONTIER CAMP MEETING 



in wagons or on 
horseback or 
afoot. They car- 
ried with them 
provisions and 
tents. Large 
crowds gathered 
to hear the Gospel preached. Some of the camp-meet- 
ing speakers were men of national reputation. The 
meetings went on day and night. The honest-hearted 
frontiersman was most deeply touched in the night time. 
The flickering lights shining out upon the deeper foliage 
of the giants of the forests, united with the minister's 
earnest appeals, made a deep impression. Edward Eggle- 
ston's Circuit Rider tells a very interesting story of a 
pioneer preacher and his work. 

382. The churches split over slavery. Unfortunately 
the churches, like the men in them, were badly torn by 
disputes over slavery. When the ministers from the 
South and the North came together in national meetings 
they fell to debating whether men ought or ought not 
to hold slaves. The dispute grew so bitter between 1840 
and 1850 that the Methodists and Baptists spHt into a 
southern and a northern wing. When the great war 
came other churches split and to this day some are still 
divided. 



Education and Literature 295 

EDUCATION AND LITERATURE 

383. Increased means of education. The coming of 
many foreigners aroused the fear of harm to American 
ideas and customs in this country. But most of the 
immigrants learned to read and write EngHsh, and their 
children were even more anxious than the parents to 
learn our ways. 

In the older communities of the North there were well- 
established school systems, and in the newer ones wise 
laws were made to encourage common schools."* Most of 
the Southern States had made strong efforts to establish 
free schools, but owing to the plantation system popula- 
tion was too widely scattered (§119). The children of 
well-to-do families went, as a rule, to private schools, 
which flourished in this period. North Carolina, among 
the older Southern States, had the best free-school system. 
Texas made liberal land grants for her schools, and Tenn- 
essee and Florida were favored by land grants for schools 
from the nation. But after the great war all the Southern 
States began to develop free schools which are now making 
wonderful progress. 

384. Higher education. In this period arose and flour- 
ished the ■ academy, much like our high school of today. 
These were pay schools. "^^ They had a great development 
in the South and West. In 1850, there were over 6,000 
of them, with more than 250,000 students. 

From 1820 to i860 was the "college-making" age. 
During this time 174 colleges were founded in the 
North and 52 in the South. But in the founding of 
State universities the South led: North Carolina, Ten- 
nessee, South Carolina, and Georgia. These universities 
were all working by 181 5. But the most celebrated 
one — the University of Virginia — did not open until 



296 Growth of the Country 

1825. Jefferson was its father and its rules were very 
democratic indeed. Its influence in the nation has been 
very great. Other State universities were founded before 
the outbreak of the war of 1861. 

385. Two great literary men. The stirring of the new 
blood of the country soon found its way into song and 
story. Some of our most beloved men of letters wrote 
in this period. Their writings furnish another proof of 





ih . (l 1 



Lji .'"''"" ' V. . . ^' H ^^j 



1' L 



i=ij»-g&i. 



^_ _ ^"-y'' 

From a photograph 
THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA AT CHARLOTTESVILLE 

The Rotunda, the building shown in the center, was modeled after the 
Roman Pantheon. It is now the University library 

a new national life. Washington Irving (i 783-1859) 
was our first author to attract much attention abroad. 
He was making people smile by the quaint humor in 
his Knickerbocker' s History and was winning praise for 
the interesting stories in his S ketch-Book. He soon 
gave to the world the first and most charming account 
of Christopher Columbus. 

At the same time James Fenimore Cooper (i 789-1851) 
was rising to fame as a w^ter of American novels. Amer- 
ica has no material out of which to make novels, said 
Europe. But Cooper in The Spy, with its tale of cour- 
age and self-sacrifice, proved that Europe was wrong. 
The Spy was followed by other interesting stories. The 
best of these were the Leatherstocking Tales. 



Education and Literature 



297 




Irving and Cooper were the 
first of our writers to use Amer- 
ican scenes and subjects as a 
background for their stories. 

386. A group of New England 
poets and writers. William Cullen 
Bryant (i 794-1 878) astonished 
the world of letters by writing 
" Thanatopsis " at the age of 
seventeen. In 182 1 he published 
a book of verse, containing, 
among others, that beautiful 

poem of faith, "To a Water- After a portrait by Charles Robert LesUe 
r 1 )» T> 1 1 TTT 1J t:^ WASHINGTON IRVING 

fowl. Ralph Waldo Emerson ,,,,„g ,,, ,,,^ ,,;;,, ^^^ ..^,,,,, 

(1803-1882), our first philosopher, "^ ^'^'''"'" Literature'- 

began his work in this period. Nathaniel Hawthorne 
(i 804-1 864), another of America's great story- writers, 
attracted early attention by his Twice-told Tales. 

The year 1807 gave us two 
of our most beloved poets, 
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow 
and John Greenleaf Whittier. 
Before graduation (1825) Long- 
fellow had written a number 
of poems, among them that 
sweet ' ' Hymn of the Moravian 
Nuns," celebrating their patri- 
otic gift of a banner to Pulaski 
(§193). Whittier, the Quaker 
poet, as a farmer's boy of eight- 
een wrote "Exile's Departure." 

From a rare daguerreotype by Brady 

JAMES FENiMORE COOPER lu latcr days Whittier was 

One of the first American writers to luin n„j j.i <*„„ j. _r r^ J >> 

popularity abroad Callcd thC pOCt Of frCCdom. 




298 



Growth of the Country 



Oliver Wendell Holmes (i 809-1 894) also wrote verse 
before receiving his diploma (1829). In the very next 
year, with that stirring poem, "Old Ironsides," he saved 

the old ship '. ' Constitution ' ' 
( § 292) from being destroyed 
as useless. 

387. Southern literary 
men. Edgar Allan Poe 
( 1 809-1 849), celebrated as 
the author of ' ' The Raven, ' ' 
spent the greater part of 
his short life in the South. 
For brief periods he held 
many important literary 
y///M^ positions, such as editor of 
^^ ' the Southern Literary 
Messenger and Graham's 
Magazine. Poe wrote 
many stories, such as The 
Gold Bug and The Purloined 
Letter, as well as such charming poems as "The Bells" 
and "Annabel Lee." The latter was to keep green the 
memory of his beloved wife. 

Alexander Beaufort Meek (1814-1865) was born in 
South Carolina, but moved to Alabama and became a 
judge, editor, and historian. He published Songs and 
Poems of the South (1857). Meek's mpst famous poems 
are "The Mocking Bird", and the "Land of the South." 
Among the most famous novelists of the South in this 
time was William Gilmore Simms (1806-18 70) of South 
Carolina, author of The Partisan, a Tale of the Revolu- 
tion, and The Yemassee. One of her ablest writers was 
John Esten Cooke (1830-1886), a Virginian. Cooke 




After an engrav 
HENRY \V. LONGFELLOW 

The most beloved of American poets 



Education and Literature 



299 



In this period, for 



wrote The Virginia Comedians (1854) and after the war 
produced Surrey of Eagle's Nest and other novels. 

388. Patriotic literature. Besides these teachers of 
the beautiful and true in life, others were writing songs to 
stir our national pride: "Hail Columbia" (1798), 
"Adams and Liberty" (1798), "The Star-Spangled Ban- 
ner" (18 14), "America," and "The American Flag" 
are among the more important songs. Numerous popular 
war songs celebrated the victories of the War of 181 2. 

Among our orators Daniel Webster was the greatest, 
easily the superior of the English orators of that age. 
In oratory Hayne was beautiful and powerful, and Clay 
full of passion and patriotic feeling. Calhoun was logi- 
cal and powerful. 

389. Other means of education. 
the first time, the daily and week- 
ly newspapers reached millions 
of readers. Monthly magazines 
like Harper's, De Bow's Review, 
the North American Review, the 
Southern Literary Messenger, and 
others were carrying good liter- 
ature into thousands of homes. 

The "Lyceum" originated in 
the latter part of this period for 
the purpose of bringing the people 
face to face with great orators, 
speakers, and literary persons of 
fame. The earnestness with which 
these men pressed upon the public 
the burning questions of the day spoke well for the times. 
People became more and more interested in public affairs, 
and read and thought more seriously than ever before. 




From a photograph of a painting 
EDGAR ALLAN POE 
The foremost southern poet 



300 



Growth of the Country 



THE GROWTH OF INDUSTRY 

390. Inventions for the farm. Every invention that 
gives man the power to do more work, and do it 
better, makes for prog- 



■7, .1' / / 




From a photograph 
CUTTING GRAIN WITH THE SICKLE 



ress. Never before dur- 
ing any ten years had so 
many improvements been 
made as from 1840 to 
1850. More patents on 
inventions were taken out 
between 1855 and i860 
than during fifty years 
previous. These im- 
provements were mainly 
in the North, for the slave did not use tools skillfully, and 
besides he was employed in raising tobacco, cotton, and 
rice where "hand labor" was the fashion. 

In the early days, when the farmer cut his grain with the 
sickle, the work was slow and hard. He could cut at one 
stroke only as much grain as he could hold in his free hand. 
What a revolution did the cradle bring ! With one vigor- 



I'lVl'i 












FARMERS CRADLING THE WHEAT 



From a photograph 



ous swing the farmer could now gather a whole sheaf. 
But the king of the harvest was the reaper. 



The Growth of Industry 



301 



Cyrus Hall McCormick of Virginia worked for twenty 
years at the problem of inventing a harvester. In 1831 
he received a patent. His own neighbors smiled and 
shook their heads. He then carried it to the farmers 
of the prairie States, where it worked wonders. In 185 1 
the reaper excited widespread attention at the World's 




-^ 









/ / 



From a photograph 



THE ORIGINAL MCCORMICK HARVESTER 



Fair, London. Now there is hardly a country in which 
the mower and harvester are not used. 

In the day of sickles the farmer beat out his grain with 
the flail, or his horses tramped it out. The grain was 
separated from the chaff by throwing it into the air that 
the wind might blow the chaff away. This was too slow. 

The threshing machine soon came. At first it was a 

cylinder full of iron teeth ^^"^ and turned by horse power. 

But still the straw had to be carried away by rakes. In 

a short time there were added to the thresher a win- 

'nowing mill, in which wooden fans fastened to a revolving 



302 



Grozvth of the Country 



cylinder furnished wind for the chaff, and a separator, 
which carried the straw to the stack. With these inven- 
tions the fields of the West furnished grain not only for 
our own people, but for thousands in Europe as well. 

391. The discovery and use of coal. Tradition has it 
that soft coal was discovered before anthracite or hard 
coal. Anthracite was thought to be a species of stone. 




THE COAL FIELDS OF THE UNITED STATES 

hence the term "stone coal" was widely used for a long 
time."^ Rich fields of coal are found in Pennsylvania 
and other northern States, but the newest and richest 
coal fields are those found in West Virginia, Kentucky, 
Tennessee, Alabama, Arkansas, and Oklahoma. These, 
however, were not worked much until after i860. 

By 1 848 ten canals and- twenty-five railroads had been 
built to carry coal and iron away from the spots where 
nature had hidden them. 

392. Iron and the making of machinery. In colo- 
nial days George Washington's father was engaged in 



The Growth of Industry 



303 




carrying iron from Maryland and Virginia to London. ^^^ 

Smelting furnaces fired by charcoal gave England 

cause to prohibit iron works in 

America. After 1790 charcoal 

furnaces gradually gave place 

to furnaces fired by coal. This 

method being cheaper, it brought 

the smelting of iron to the coal 

fields, and in 1840 there were 

more than 800 furnaces in the 

United States. The widespread 

use of iron in manufacture and 

in transportation has made coal 

and iron the chief minerals of 

the world. 

393. Progress in manufactur- 
ing. It was a big step forward 

when manufacturing was taken to the factory instead 

of being done in small shops or in the home (§107). 

The old spinning wheel made one thread at a time and 

required one person to run it. A new machine now spun 

hundreds of threads 
at once and called for 
but one person to man- 
age it. The hand loom 
produced a few yards a 
day only, the power 
loom wove many yards 
each day. This pro- 
duced a remarkable 
increase in cotton and 

woolen goods, and greatly increased the demand on the 

farmer for the raw materials needed in manufacture. 



SPINNING IN COLONIAL TIMES 




AN OLD HAND LOOM 



304 



Growth of the Country 




394. Trade on the Mississippi. By the year 1825 the 
steamboat was more than making good the prophecy of 
its friends. Very soon it carried more than half the trade 
to New Orleans. How slow people are to change from 
the old to the new way is seen from a trip of Jackson's 
Secretary of the Navy down the Mississippi (1833) : "At 

every village we 
find from ten to 
twelve flat-bot- 
tomed boats, which 
besides corn on the 
ear, pork, bacon, 
flour, whiskey, cat- 

Fiom an old print (-|g ^^^ fowls, haVC 
A MISSISSIPPI RIVER STEAMBOAT 

The steamboat gradually threw out of use the flatboats and a great aSSOi' Linent 
keel boats once so common on the river . . . 

or notions irom 
Cincinnati. . . . Among these are corn brooms, cabinet 
furniture, cider, plows, apples, cordage, etc. After all is 
sold out they dispose of their boats and return with their 
crews by steamers." 

The goods carried to New Orleans in 1830 amounted 
to over $25,000,000; in 1840 to nearly $50,000,000. 
This shows what a mighty factor the Mississippi was in 
binding together the parts of the nation. 

395. Growth of railroads. As railroad building took 
on new life, the canals began to lose. By 1842 one could 
travel from Boston to Buff^alo by rail, but it was ten years 
before Chicago was connected with the East. During 
this time the South and t-he North were joined by a great 
railroad line running from Wilmington, North Carolina, 
to Richmond, Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and 
New York. By 1850 both Charleston and Savannah were 
united with Atlanta and Chattanooga. From 1850 to 



The Growth of Industry 



305 



i860 railroads in the United States grew from 6,000 to 
30,000 miles. But railroads and steamboats were not 
built so well as in our day, and accidents were common. 
The result was that Congress passed a law for the inspec- 
tion of steamboats. 

The year 1857 was noted in railroad history, for in this 
year Chicago and St. Louis were joined, and the Balti- 




cs i/L/^ OF MEXICO 4"''''^ 



There was also a railway of twenty- 
two miles between Sacramento and 
Folsoni City, California. 



THE RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1860 

more & Ohio reached the great city across the Mississ- 
ippi. By i860 the larger cities were tied together by 
iron rails over which poured an ever-increasing trade. 



3o6 



Growth of the Country 




THE "savannah" 

The "Savannah" crossed the Atlantic in eighteen days 
but used steam only seven days 



Unfortunately, few railroads ran south and north where 
they were most needed to produce friendly intercourse. 

396. Ocean steamships. In the meantime the steam- 

, boathadbeen 

growing into the 
steamship. As early 
as 1819 the "Savan- 
nah, " carrying both 
sails and steam, 
crossed the Atlantic. 
It was so named be- 
cause built by enter- 
prising people of that 
city (§250). The 

people of Liverpool swarmed the docks to see the strange 

sight. It is said that some thought the "Savannah" on 

fire when they saw the smoke rolling from her funnels. 
But the steamship came in 

slowly, and not until 1837 did two 

ships cross the ocean without sails. 

Now an English, and now an 

American ship won in the contest 

to see which could cross in the 

shortest time. Year by year the 

trip became shorter, more com- 
fortable, and less expensive, until 

to-day it is a mere holiday on a 

floating palace. 

397. The telegraph. We have 
seen inventions which brought the 
distant parts of the country nearer together (§280). 
But the telegraph went far beyond them all. Samuel 
F. B. Morse, aided by Alfred Vail, was the inventor. 




THE FIRST TELEGRAPH 
INSTRUMENT 



The Growth oj Industry 



307 




From a photograph 
SAMUEL F. B. MORSE 

The inventor of the telegraph. Morse won 
after a twelve-year struggle 



In 1838, over three miles of 
wire, he sent the message: 
"A patient waiter is no loser." 
In 1843 Congress voted 
$30,000 for a line between 
Washington and Baltimore. 
This was finished during the 
next year, the first regular 
telegraph line in the world. 
By i860 every State in the 
Union was using the Morse 
invention. Europe rapidly 
adopted it. 

398. The Atlantic cable. 
Experiments were already on 
foot to "send news under the 
sea." A "cable" connected New York and Jersey City 
as early as 1848. Business men in America and England, 
under the leadership of Cyrus 
W, Field, aided by Congress, 
made it possible to "uncoil" the 
first ocean cable in 1857. It 
broke when only 300 miles out. 
But in 1858, Field was suc- 
cessful, and Queen Victoria and 
President Buchanan inter- 
changed greetings. New York 
gave the "conqueror of the 
Atlantic" a great ovation. 
Again the cable parted. But 
Field persisted and finally in ■ ' ^ ^ 

■*- "^ From a photograph 

1866 his efforts were crowned gyrus w. field 

with the success he deserved. ^""^"'^la^Klira't^r.f^^ "''"'" 




3o8 Political Struggle Between the North and the South 

POLITICAL STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE 
NORTH AND THE SOUTH 

THE KANSAS QUESTION 

399. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill. In 1852, when Pierce 
was elected president, men hoped that a new "era of good 
feeling" was at hand. But the new period of harmony 
was short. Two things helped to cut it short. One has 
been mentioned— the runaway slave, who in spite of 
everybody's efforts kept the two sections angry. The 
other was the repeal in 1854 of the famous Missouri 
Compromise by the Kansas-Nebraska Bill. 

Settlers were moving into the West and laws were 
needed to govern them. Senator Stephen A. Douglas, 
of Illinois, proposed a bill in Congress. It made the 
region between the Missouri River and the Rocky 
Mountains into two territories, Kansas and Nebraska. 
This land was in the Louisiana Purchase and north of 
36° 3q'. Therefore by the Missouri Compromise it was 
always to be free soil. But Douglas' law proposed to 
change this. Kansas and Nebraska were to decide for 
themselves whether they would have slavery or not. The 
law would do away with the compromise line of 1820. 

Fierce debates followed in Congress. The anti-slavery 
men declared that if this old compromise could be swept 
away, nothing would be sacred enough to stand between 
slavery and free territory. A storm of indignation swept 
over the North. Public meetings denounced Douglas 
and his bill, even many of his own party opposed him. 
But all was in vain. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill passed, 
and the fate of those two territories was left to what the 
Douglas men called "popular sovereignty," their oppo- 
nents, "squatter sovereignty." 



The Kansas Question 



309 



400. The race for Kansas. No sooner was the bill 
passed than a race began for the possession of Kansas. 
Men from Missouri and other near-by States were the 
first to rush in, but others soon followed. Eli Thayer of 
Massachusetts organized the "Emigrant Aid Society" 
to send anti-slavery men. The first of these emigrants 
soon started on their long journey to Kansas. All along 
the road people gathered to see them pass, and some 
joined them. The South did not wish to be outdone. 
Jefferson Buford and others led bands of settlers to make 
Kansas a slave State. 

401. Rival governments in Kansas. Some kind of 
government had to be organized. Rivalry was bitter 




,<-^ii»&*5' 



EMIGRANTS ON THEIR WAY TO KANSAS 



and feeHng ran high. The pro-slavery men scored the 
first point. Amidst great excitement they elected a 
territorial legislature, passed laws in favor of slavery, 
and sent a delegate to Congress. 

The anti-slavery men, however, protested. They 
claimed that the election was unfair, and refused to accept 



3 1 o Political Struggle Between the North and the South 

its results. They made a State constitution, as Cali- 
fornia had done (§367), prohibited slavery, and applied 
for admission as a free State. There was no trouble 
about ratifying the constitution because the pro-slavery 
sympathizers refused to vote on it. 

The pro-slavery men in their turn were not to be out- 
done. Fearing that they might lose control of the terri- 
torial legislature, they themselves proceeded to make a 
State constitution, which established slavery. They then 
applied for admission as a slave State. 

Congress itself was divided on the Kansas question, 
and the State was not admitted until 1861. It then came 
in as a free St te. 

402. "Bleeding Kansas." In the meantime under 
ever-increasing excitement the struggle in Kansas went 
on. Each side accused the other of fraud, and bitterness 
and hatred grew steadily. Neither side was able to pre- 
serve order. Lawless bands roved about. Buildings were 
burned. Men were murdered Indeed, blood was shed 
so recklessly that the State was spoken of as "Bleeding 
Kansas." 

403. The effect of the Kansas conflict on the country. 
The excitement soon spread over the country. News- 
papers took sides and the question was hotly debated. 
Angry speeches were made in Congress on both sides. 
Worst of all, a deeper feeling of suspicion and unfriendli- 
ness grew up between the two sections. The North 
believed that the South was determined to push slavery 
into all the territories. The South now began to believe 
that the North was resolved to make all the territories 
free soil, and even destroy slavery in the Southern 
States. Each side thought the other was exceeding its 
rights. 



Changes in Political Parties 311 

CHANGES IN POLITICAL PARTIES 

404. New political parties. In spite of the Com- 
promises the slavery question was rapidly forcing changes 
in the old parties. The Whigs were badly broken up. 
They had no leaders to take the place of Clay and 
Webster and hold the party together. The party rapidly 
split into a pro-slavery wing and an anti-slavery wing. 
The Democratic party kept together better; but some 
in the North were dissatisfied because they thought it 
favored slavery too much, and others in the South were 
displeased because it did not seem to protect it enough 
In this crisis two new parties were formed: 

405. The Republican party. This was distinctly an 
anti-slavery party. It denounced the Kansas-Nebraska 
Bill and its plan of "popular sovereignty" for the terri- 
tories. It insisted that all territories should be free soil. 
It was made up of (i) the Free Soilers, who came to 
it because it took their battle cry "No more slave 
territory " ( § 3 64) ; (2) northern anti-slavery Democrats, 
especially those who did not like what their party 
had done about Kansas; (3) the majority of Northern 
Whigs. 

406. The American party. This was formed by those 
who still believed that it was possible to bring peace 
and quiet by refusing to talk about the slavery question. 
Their plan was to draw the attention of the country 
away from slavery by pointing out the danger of 
foreign immigration. Their rallying cry was "America 
for Americans." Therefore they called themselves the 
American party. But others called them "Know- 
Nothings," because they were a secret organization, 
and when a member was asked about their plans he 
always replied, "I know nothing." 



312 Political Struggle Between the North and the South 




407. The presidential election of 1856. The strength 
of these new parties was first tested in the election of 

1856. The Democrats put 
forward James Buchanan and 
John C. Breckinridge as their 
standard bearers. The Repub- 
licans held their first national 
convention in Philadelphia, and 
selected as candidates John C. 
Fremont and William L. 
Dayton. The American party- 
nominated Millard Fillmore and 
Andrew J. Donelson. Fillmore 
was later nominated also by 
a small remnant of the Whigs. 
The three candidates for 
the presidency were well known. 
Buchanan had long been in pub- 
lic life and had recently been 
our minister to England. Fremont was famous as a dar- 
ing explorer of our western country, and had won the name 
"Pathfinder." Fillmore had already served as president. 
The result showed that the people could not be per- 
suaded to forget the slavery question. Fillmore carried 
only one state. Buchanan was elected. But the Repub- 
licans made a remarkable showing for a new party, and 
rejoiced as if they had won a victory. They might 
well do so, for they had carried all the free States but four. 
On the other hand the ' Democrats carried all the slave 
States except Maryland. The result was full of meaning. 
The nation was clearly dividing into a North and a South. 

408. The Dred Scott decision. Soon after Buchanan 
became president, the Supreme Court of the United States 



From a photograph by Brady 

JAMES BUCH.^NAN 

Buchanan was an able congressman, 

cabinet member and diplomat. A 

man of unimpeachable honesty 



Changes in Political Parties 



313 



made a decision that gave a new turn to the slavery 
question and widened the breach between the States. 

Dred Scott was a slave who sued for his freedom because 
his master had taken him from his old home, Missouri. 
He had been carried into a free State, Illinois, and then 
into a part of our territory where the Missouri Compro- 
mise had forbidden slavery. The court decided against 
Dred Scott, and in doing so declared (i) that a slave could 
not become a citizen of the United States, (2) that slaves 
could be taken by their masters into the territories like 
other property, (3) that Congress could not touch this 
right, and therefore the 
Missouri Compromise was 
unconstitutional. 

The South received this 
decision with delight. It 
seemed now impossible to 
shut slavery out of any 
territory. The North was 
filled with indignation. 
The people wondered if 
slavery would go every- 
where. Could even 
Douglas's plan of * ' popular 
sovereignty" now be ap- 
plied in the territories? 
The question was soon to split the Democratic party. 

409. "A house divided against itself." In 1858 a 
United States senator was to be chosen in Illinois. The 
Democrats put forth for another term their great leader, 
Senator Douglas, who was now famous all over the coun- 
try. The Republicans declared that Abraham Lincoln 
was their first and only choice. Lincoln was not yet so 




After a photograph of a painting 
ROGER BROOKE TANEY 
As chief justice of the Supreme Court, Taney 
handed down the decision in the Dred Scott case 



314 Political Struggle Between the North and the South 



well known as Douglas, but in the nominating convention 
he made a speech that fixed upon him the eye of the 
nation. He boldly declared that ' ' a house divided against 
itself cannot stand"; that this country must now become 
all slave or all free. 

Douglas vigorously attacked Lincoln's views before a 
great audience in Chicago. Lincoln was present, and the 
next evening made answer. Other speeches followed. 

410. The Lincoln-Douglas debates. Lincoln chal- 
lenged Douglas to debate the questions of the day before 
the people of Illinois. Douglas accepted and during that 
summer seven joint debates were held in different towns. 

From miles around 



W 

/" 




■.v^'^ 



the people came on 
foot, on horseback, 
in wagons, and on 
trains to hear the 
burning questions 
discussed by the 
two ablest debaters 
in Illinois. 

What a difference 



.--- ■■■■-■■. « _ ' -'-V*- 

' From a photograph 

THE BIRTHPLACE OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN jn the tWO mCU aS 

This humble cabin is now enclosed by a granite building , , 

they appeared on 
the platform! Douglas was short and squarely built. 
He spoke rapidly and powerfully, and carried his hearers 
by storm. He loved a hand-to-hand fight and was the 
greatest offhand debater in America. Lincoln was tall, 
slender, and awkward. He spoke slowly and calmly. 
His language was always simple, and often quaint and 
humorous. His plain, unpretending manner won its way 
to the hearts of the people. He was the one man that 
Douglas feared. 



Changes in Political Parties 



31S 




Douglas was in a hard position. He wished to please 
the people of Illinois and be senator again. At the 
same time he wished to please the 
Democrats of the South and be 
the leader of the party. Lincoln 
saw that Douglas could not do 
both, if he was forced to say 
definitely whether he meant by 
"popular sovereignty" that slav- 
ery could not be kept out of the 
territories. He finally stated that 
he believed it could. This won 
Douglas the favor of the people of 
Illinois and he was chosen senator. 
But it turned from him many in 

the South who believed that they From a photograph by Brady 

. STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS 

had a right to take their slaves Oouglas was nicknamed -The LUlle 
, ... J J.1 i i 1 T->> 1 Giant." He rose rapidly to 

to any territory and that the Dred distinction in pouncs 

Scott decision had said so. Not only did this weaken the 
influence of Douglas in the South, but it drove deeper 
into the Democratic party the wedge that was soon to 

divide it hopelessly. 
411. John Brown 
at Harper's Ferry 
(1859). In October, 
the country was 
startled by the news 
that John Brown, 
with about twenty 
others, had made a 
sudden raid on the 
United States arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virginia. He 
captured it, seized white citizens, and freed some negro 




JOHN BROWN S FORT 



3 1 6 Political Struggle Between the North and the South 




DELEGATES LEAVING THE CHARLESTON CONVENTION 



slaves. Brown had hoped that other slaves would rise 
and join him. But they did not do so, and he and his 

men were sur- 
'•''?*'''': ■''•^^^^ ;:,: rounded and 

captured after 
a hard fight. 
He was tried, 
condemned, 
and hanged. 

Brown was a 
fanatic who 
had already- 
done some 
bloody deeds 
in the Kansas 
struggle. He had hoped this time to start an insurrection 
that would spread over the South and result in freeing 
all the slaves. Many northern people condemned his 
conduct, but some regarded him as a martyr. In the 
South the people were profoundly stirred. They re- 
alized what horrors would have followed if his plan had 
succeeded. 

412. The Democratic party splits. The presidential 
election was now drawing near. Much depended on it 
and all eyes watched to see who would be the candidates. 
The Democrats met first at Charleston, South Carolina, 
in April, i860. The delegates from the free States 
favored Douglas. But his statement in the debates with 
Lincoln had lost for him the support of many southern 
delegates. These finally left the hall, and the convention 
adjourned to Baltimore. Here again it split, and at last 
two nominations were made. The northern wing of the 
party nominated Douglas, approving his famous idea 



Changes in Political Parties 



317 




JOHN C. BRECKINRIDGE 

Vice-president from 1836-1S60, and 
ominaled for the Presidency by the 



of "popular sovereignty." The southern wing chose 
John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky and denied the 
right of any one to interfere 
with slavery in a territory. 
The Democratic party was 
now hopelessly divided. 

413. Lincoln nominated by 
the Republicans. The Repub- 
licans met in Chicago. William 
H. Seward was their most 
prominent leader, and many 
thought he would be their 
choice for president. But Lin- 
coln had also become famous 
since his debates with Douglas, 

1 • 1 j_ i_ "j. j_ nomtnaiea jor ine rresiaency uy im 

and amidst great excitement southern Democrats in i860, Breckin 

^ , 1 • 1 ridge later became a noted Southern 

was nominated on the third general 

ballot. The platform came out 
squarely against slavery in the 
territories. It declared that 
freedom was their natural con- 
dition. In regard to slavery 
it denied the right of Congress 
or of a territorial legislature, 
or of any individual, to give it 
legal existence in any territory 
y/ of the United States. 

414. The Constitutional 

Union party. The Know- 

Nothings had passed away. 

JOHN BELL Their plan of bringing peace 

Noted as a political debater in Congress U.-.j^ faTb-inrr 1(=>cc r\f QlaArprAr nnH 
in favor of the Union. Bell was selected ^Jy LdlKlIlg ICbb Ui MclVCi_y diiia 

Union Imy'"'" '" "" ^""'''"'''"""^ morc of othcr things was now 




From a photograph 



3i8 Political Struggle Between the North and the South 

taken up by the Constitutional Union party. They 
called on the people to stop quarreling about slavery. 

They demanded that they 
put their faith in "the 
Constitution of the coun- 
try, the union of the States, 
and the enforcement of the 
laws." John Bell of Ten- 
nessee was their candidate. 
415. The election of Lin- 
coln. The campaign was 
full of excitement, and full 
also of earnestness. Great 
questions were before the 
people, who felt that they 
were settling the fate of 

From a contemporary photograph thC natlOn. 

WILLIAM LOWNDES YANCEY T^ 1 1 ' r1 

A renowned Alabamalawyer and statesman, and JJOUglaS, SpCaRmg day 

one of the, reatest orators of the South ^^^ ^^-gj^^^ ^^,^g ^^^ ^^^^ 

active figure in the campaign. When he saw the North 
slipping from him, he turned to the South. He pleaded 
for the preservation of the Union, for already he heard 
threats that the Southern States would withdraw if 
Lincoln were elected. Breckinridge and southern orators 
like Yancey spoke with equal earnestness throughout the 
country. But with the Democrats divided the result 
was sure. Lincoln was elected. The Republicans had 
won. What would the South do? 




SECESSION AND CONFEDERATION 

416. South Carolina secedes. South Carolina was the 
first State to act. A convention was quickly called. 
Every one knew what she would do, yet all anxiously 



Secession and Confederation 319 

waited for her decision, for they felt that this was the most 
critical moment in the State's history. On December 20 
the "Ordinance of Secession" was read in the conven- 
tion. Men listened intently to lose no word. It was very 
brief. It simply repealed the act by which South Carolina 
had adopted the Constitution. It declared at an end the 
union between her and the other States. It was passed 
unanimously. Cheers and shouts broke forth. The people 
of Charleston, where the convention was meeting, built 
bonfires, rang bells, fired cannon, and paraded the streets. 
417. Other States follow. Others .of the southern 
States quickly followed the example of South Carolina. 
By the first of February, 1861, six more had seceded: 
Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and 
Texas. Everywhere there was 
much cheering and rejoicing, but 
many felt sad at the thought of 
leaving the old Union which their 
fathers had helped to found. Some 
thought it would be wiser to wait 
and see whether something else 
could not still be done. flag of the secession 

8/X»i_ • 1.x J. J /T->1 CONVENTION, CHARLESTON 

. . The right to secede. The ^/.e design was based on the state 

question whether a State could Ms of south caroHna 

withdraw from the Union was not a new one. Secession 
had often been threatened in the North (§303) as well as 
in the South (§342). In the early days of the Republic 
few had questioned the right. Southerners still believed 
in it. They maintained that the States had made the 
Union, and that any State could leave it when it became 
necessary. Most of them thought that time had now 
come. Lincoln had been elected. He was the leader of 
a party built up to oppose slavery. He had himself 




320 Political Struggle Between the North and the South 




THE "STARS AND BARS" 

This flag was adopted by the 
Montgomery Convention 



said that the country could not remain half slave and 
half free. He had carried every northern State. The 
result was felt in the South to be a declaration of war: 
not only against slavery in the territories, but ultimately 
in some "way against it in the States. This would mean 
the upsetting of their whole social system, and untold 
trouble. Moreover, it would mean interference with 

the rights of the States, which 
were very dear to the southern 
heart and closely associated with 
the idea of freedom. 

419. The northern view. Few 
people in the North any longer 
believed that a State could 
'withdraw from the Union. 
With them the nation was the 
main thing. They believed with Webster that it was the 
creation of the whole people and not to be broken up by 
any State. They claimed that the nation had the right 
to prohibit slavery in its territories. But most of them, 
except the Abolitionists, protested that they were not 
planning to interfere with it in the Southern States. 

420. The Confederacy. The seceding States at once 
undertook to forrn a government among themselves. 
Delegates met in Montgomery, Alabama, in February, 
1 86 1, and organized "The Confederate States of Amer- 
ica." Those were stirring days in that fine little city. 
Hotels were packed. Even the streets were crowded. 
Men already famous in public life found themselves side 
by side with planters from the neighboring country and 
visitors from distant cities. All were eager to see what 
the delegates would do and whether war would follow. 
They did not have to wait long. 



Secession and Confederation 



321 



A temporary constitution was first drawn up, but later 
a regular one took its place. The new government was a 
good deal like the old Union, but there were some impor- 
tant differences: (i) Slavery was clearly recognized and 
protected in the states where it existed and in any terri- 
tory that might be acquired. (2) The president was to 
serve for six years, and was not to have a second term. 
(3) Cabinet officers might speak in Congress and explain 
their plans. Jefferson Davis was chosen president, and 
Alexander H. Stephens vice-president, of the Confederacy. 

421. The inauguration of Jefferson Davis. On Feb- 
ruary 18 the inaug- 
uration took place 
in front of the capi- 
tol in Montgomery. 
A great crowd was 
present. Mr. Davis 
rode in a carriage 
drawn by six white 
horses. He was 
attended by many 
friends and admir- 
ers. A witness says : 
"He took the oath 
amidst the deepest 
silence; and when 
he raised his hand 
and his eyes to 
Heaven, and said, 
'So help me, God,' 
I think I never saw any scene so solemn and impressive." 

422. Buchanan hesitates. The end of President Bu- 
chanan's term was near. Would he use force against the 











From a photograph 
SCENE AT THE INAUGURATION OF JEFFERSON 
DAVIS .\T MONTGOMERY, ALABAMA 



32 2 Political Struggle Between the North and the South 



seceding States, or would he leave the matter for Lincoln 
to settle ? Everybody waited for him to speak. He seemed 
to hesitate. In a message to Congress he said : ' ' No State 
has a right to secede ; but if it does, no one can use force to 
stop it . " This meant that he did not intend to do anything. 
As the Southern States withdrew from the Union, 

southern men be- 
gan to leave Wash- 
ington. Senators, 
congressmen, and 
even members of 
Buchanan's cabi- 
net gave up their 
places, said fare- 
well to old friends, 
and went home to 
join their States. 
Buchanan now 
seemed more in- 
clined to favor the 
northern side. He 
sent an unarmed 
vessel with soldiers 
and supplies to 
strengthen Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor. This 
pleased the North, but angered the South. The guns 
at Charleston fired on the ship, and it turned back and 
gave up its attempt. 

423. Plans to avoid war. War seemed near, yet 
neither side wished it if it could be avoided. Was this 
possible? Would the North let the Southern States set 
up and carry on an independent government without war? 
Was there any way to persuade them to come back into 




■*" ^"fet 



CHARLESTON HARBOR AND ITS APPROACHES 



Secession and Confederation 



323 




From a portrait painted by Browne 
JEFFERSON DAVIS 
President of the Confederate States 



the Union? Good men on both 
sides tried to find such a way. 
Two famous attempts were 
made. 

424. The Crittenden Compro- 
mise. Many suggestions were 
made in Congress, but the best 
known was the Crittenden Com- 
promise, named after its author. 
Senator Crittenden of Kentucky. 
This proposed to amend the 
Constitution so as to fix safely 
three things: (i) All territo- 
ries north of 36° 30' should be 
free, and all south of that line 
should be slave. (2) New States entering the Union 
might come as free or as slave States, as they chose. 

(3) Congress should have no 
power to interfere with slavery in 
any State that chose to have it. 

The Republicans, however, 
had fought earnestly to keep 
slavery out of all territories, and 
they now refused to divide them 
with the South. The compromise 
-. therefore failed, to the regret of 
many people. 

425. Virginia calls a convention. 
Virginia had not yet seceded. She 
had helped to form the Union, 
and had done much to make it 

From a photograph by Brady 

ALEXANDER H. STEPHENS grcat. Shc did not now wish to 

Vice.President^onhe Confederate g^^ -^ brokcn Up if it COUld bc 




324 Political Struggle Between the North and the South 

saved. Now she called a convention of the States to 
meet in Washington and see what could be done. The 
seceding States were not present, but twenty- two others 
were. Some were free States and some were slave. It 
was hard for them to agree, but finally they suggested 
a series of compromises somewhat like those of Senator 
Crittenden. Had they come earlier, they might possibly 
have saved the country from war. Now men's minds 
were made up. It was too late for compromises. The 
plan did not pass Congress. Virginia's attempt, like 
Crittenden's, failed. 

426. War draws near. In the meantime the Confeder- 
ate government was going ahead at Montgomery. Its 
Congress was making laws, its president was organizing, 
and every day it was getting on a firmer basis. Other 
States were expected to join at any moment. Some 
thought there would be no war, and that the North would 
let the Southern States go in peace. But others with 
keener foresight said that war was surely coming and it 
would be a hard one. 

At Washington men grew anxious. People were di- 
vided in their sympathies, and rumors of plots and danger 
flew about the city. General Scott brought troops to 
preserve order. All waited restlessly for the new presi- 
dent to come and take up his task. 

427. Lincoln's inauguration. During these exciting 
days Lincoln had been carefully watching the course of 
events, advising with his friends, and preparing his in- 
augural address. Now he set out for Washington. The 
journey was a long one, and on the way he spoke to 
thousands who were eager to see and hear him. There 
were rumors of a plot to kill him, and his friends forced 
him to travel secretly from Philadelphia to Washington. 



War Begins- 



325 



On the fourth of March he took the oath of office in the 
presence of a vast throng, who Hstened intently to his 
address. The North and the South were both concerned 
to know what he would do. 
Would he let the Southern 
States go, or would he try to 
enforce the national laws in 
them? Would he give up the 
forts in the South, or would he 
hold them? Would he say 
anything about slavery? He 
did not leave people in doubt, 
but stated his position clearly. . 
It was: (i) The Union could 
not be broken; no State could 
lawfully leave it; he would 
do everything possible to pre- 
serve it. (2) He would en- 
force the laws of the Union 
in the seceding States, and 
hold the forts within them, 
interfere with slavery within the States where it existed. 

His words were kindly, but his statement was positive 
and firm. The North was greatly pleased. Douglas 
and many of his followers now rallied about Lincoln and 
gave him their hearty support. To the South Lincoln's 
address meant that there were to be no more attempts 
at compromise. War was one step nearer. 




r>m a rare photoKraph takpn by Aloxaoder 
Heslor \u Chicago 18G0 

ABRAHAM LINCOLN 

Lincoln preserved the Union 

(3) He had no purpose to 



THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 

WAR BEGINS 

428. The fall of Fort Sumter. As the Southern States 
seceded, they took possession of most of the forts within 
12 



326 



The War Between the States 



their bounds. A few refused to yield. Of these Fort 
Sumter in Charleston harbor was the most important. 










^W^^' 










^^Fj- 



From a war-time photoerraph 
THE INTERIOR OF FORT SUMTER AFTER THE BOMBARDMENT 

If Lincoln meant to hold it, he must send supplies, for 
the food in it was running short. He hesitated for fear 
the act might start the war. Also it might offend the 
border States and send them into the Confederacy. 

The South hoped the fort would be given up, and sent 
men to Washington to see whether it would be done. 
From what they heard they thought the fort would be 
surrendered. Lincoln, however, decided to send relief 
to it, and notified the Governor of South Carolina. The 
news was telegraphed to Montgomery, and the Con- 
federate government gave orders to take the fort at once. 
Major Anderson with his little band of 128 men refused 
to yield, and on the morning of April 12 the batteries 
in Charleston harbor opened fire. The first shot "rose 
high in the air, and curving in its course burst almost 
directly over the fort." The actual fighting had begun. 

The people of the city gathered in crowds to watch 
the spectacle. Some stood on the wharves; others 



War^Begins 



327 



climbed to the housetops to get a better view. Little 
did they dream how long the war would last. 

The garrison made a brave defense, but they could not 
save the fort. By noon the next day it was on fire and the 
walls were broken in many places. Smoke and cinders 
almost choked the men. Some lay upon the ground and 
covered their heads with wet cloths. Others crept to 
the portholes for a breath of air. But explosion followed 
explosion, and at last on Sunday afternoon, April 14, 
Major Anderson gave up the fort to the Confederate 
commander. General Beauregard. There was great re- 
joicing in Charleston and throughout the Confederacy. 

429. Lincoln calls for volunteers. The North was 
now aroused. Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers, and 




THE WAR SPIRIT IN THE NORTH 



the people rallied round him. Public meetings were 
held in city, town, and country. The pulpit, the plat- 
form, and the press called on men to defend the Union. 
Flags were flung to the breeze, and fife and drum joined 
in kindling the war spirit. A mighty wave of enthusiasm 
swept over the country. From farm and shop, factory 



328 



The War Between the States 




SEAL OF THE CON- 
FEDERACY 



and foundry, from every walk in life, came the volun- 
teers in answer to the President's call. In ten weeks 
more than 300,000 men were under 
arms. 

430. Other States secede. When 
Sumter fell, and Lincoln called for 
soldiers, southern men realized that 
now war had begun. Everywhere, as 
in the North, there was unbounded 
enthusiasm. Companies were formed, 
troops were drilled, and martial 
music filled the air. "Dixie" soon became the favorite 
southern tune, and its stirring notes were heard on 
every battle field and in every confederate camp for 
four long years. 

For the border States it was a serious time. War 
had come and Lincoln was calling on them for soldiers. 
They must now cast in their lot with one side or the other 
— either join the Confederacy or fight against it. With- 
out hesitating Virginia, 
North Carolina, Tennes- 
see, and Arkansas took 
their stand with the 
Southern Confederacy. 
A part of Virginia ly- 
ing west of the moun- 
tains refused to join the 
South. It was later ad- 
mitted by the North aS' 
a State and called West 

Virginia. In portions of the war spirit in the south 

Tennessee there were many who wished to remain in the 
Union. A number of these fought in the northern army. 




War Begins 



329 



In Maryland, Delaware, Kentucky, and Missouri slav- 
ery existed, and it was thought that they might go to 
the Confederacy. Many of the people in these states 
sympathized with the South, and in some the governors 
refused to send troops when Lincoln called for them. 
Soldiers went from them to each side, some wearing the 
blue and some the gray. But the States remained in 
the Union. 'i-' 

The new States that came 
into the Confederacy ex- 
tended its bounds and brought 
it close to Washington. It 
was thought that most of the 
fighting would be in that 
region; so the capital was 
moved from Montgomery to 
Richmond in order that the 
government might keep in 
touch with the army. Here it 
stayed until the war was over. 

431. The strength of the Js 
two sections. In many ways 
the North was stronger than 
the South. It had 22,000,000 people in it, while the 
South had only 9,000,000, of whom 3,500,000 were negro 
slaves. The difference in wealth and variety of resources 
was equally great. The North had thousands of shops 
and mines and factories, whereas the South had few. 
The North had the old government, already in running 
order and known all over the world. It had, too, most of 
the navy, and the dockyards for working on warships. 

On the other hand, the southerners had some advan- 
tages. They were fighting for their own homes and 




A SOUTHERN SOLDIER 



330 



The War Between the States 



firesides and would put forth every effort. They Hved a 
great deal in the open air, were hardy, and were used to 
firearms. Then, too, they had only to hold their own; 
the North had to conquer them or fail. When their land 
was invaded, they knew every road and stream and made 
that knowledge count. 

432. Washington and Richmond. Now that the seat 
of the Confederate government had been moved to 

Richmond, the two capital 
'"'^ cities faced each other with 
scarcely a hundred miles between 
them. Each was a tempting ob- 
ject for the other side to attack. 
Which would strike first ? 

When the news of the fall of 
Fort Sumter reached Washing- 
ton, some feared that southern 
troops would march at once upon 
the city. Lincoln sent in haste 
for soldiers to defend it, and 
anxiously looked for their coming, 
saying over and over to himself: 
"Why don't they come! Why 
don't they come ! " At last they 
arrived. Some came by way of Baltimore, where they 
struggled with a crowd in the streets and men were killed 
on each side. Some came by Annapolis and from other 
directions. By the end of April there were enough troops 
in Washington to make the city feel safe. 

Near at hand others were in camp and busy drilHng. 
Few realized how much training and preparation an army 
needs to fit it for the field, and the country began to com- 
plain of its slowness. "On to Richmond!" was the cry 




A NORTHERN INFANTRYMAN 



War Begins 



331 




From a war-time photograph 

PIERRE G. T. BEAUREGARD 

A distinguished general of the Confederate 
Army 



that arose on every side. So <#TT^^ 

strong grew the demand that 

Lincoln yielded, and in the 

middle of July the Union army, 

under General McDowell, 

began to move southward. 
The South, meanwhile, had 

not been idle. Some dreamed 

of a quick and easy march 

into Washington, but wiser 

men knew better. President 

Davis and other leaders ex- 
pected a hard fight. Southern 

troops were hurried forward 

under the command of General 

Beauregard. He took his stand behind a small stream 

called Bull Run not far from the railroad station of 

Manassas Junction. Confederate soldiers farther west in 

the Valley of Virginia were ordered to join Beauregard. 

Under the command of General 
Joseph E. Johnston, they pushed 
forward on foot and by train. 
Some came before the battle 
and others arrived in the midst 
of it and helped to turn the tide. 
433. The Battle of Bull Run 
or Manassas. At ten o'clock 
'' in the morning of July 2 1 the 
Union troops began the attack. 
The Confederates gradually gave 
way. Only General Jackson's 

From a war-time photograph by Brady -/ ^ 

THOMAS JONATHAN JACKSON mcn stood firm. " Look ! " cried 
K"o^» 'o his sojdierys '-stonewall Q^^^^^^ j^cc to his retreating 




332 



The War Between the States 



men. "There stands Jackson like a stone wall." They 
rallied and renewed the battle. From that day Jackson 
was known to his soldiers as ' ' Stonewall ' ' Jackson. After- 
noon came, and the battle was still in doubt. Now the 

Confederates threw in 
all their strength in a 
last effort. At this mo- 
ment were heard the 
cheers of Johnston's 
other soldiers coming 
in from the west. The 
Union line wavered, 
then broke, and soon the 
whole army was running 
madly away toward 
Washington. 

434. The results of 
the battle. In the South 
there was great rejoicing. 

McClellan was a, realorgamzer and irainer of soldiers SumtCr had bcCn taken, 

and now the northern army had been driven back to Wash- 
ington in a panic. Some thought the war as good as won. 
In Washington the news came like a bombshell. What 
did it mean? Would the city be taken next? Then 
came sober thought. What was needed was drill, drill, 
drill. General George B. McClellan was put in charge. 
He was a fine organizer and for months drilled the troops 
until the Army of the Potomac was really fit for war. 




From a war time photograph 
GEORGE BRINTON MCCLELLAN 



THE BLOCKADE AND ENGLAND 

435. Southern ports blockaded. The South was 
largely a farming country. It had been in the habit of 
getting from other lands hundreds of useful things that 



The Blockade and England 



333 



were made in shops and factories. In return it sent 
abroad its cotton and other crops. Lincoln saw that 
if he could shut up the southern ports so tight that no 
trading ships could go in or out, he would strike the 
Confederacy a deadly blow. In April, 1861, he declared 
these ports blockaded, and stationed war vessels to stop 
all trade. 

436. Running the blockade. It was a big job to watch 
the whole coast, and many a vessel slipped by the guarding 
warships. This "running the blockade" was a dangerous 
and exciting business. Small, swift vessels were built 
to steal in and out on dark and stormy nights. They 
brought in wel- 
come cargoes of 
guns and ammu- 
nition as well as 
things needed on 
the farms and in 
the towns. Then 
loading with bales 
of cotton they 
stole out again 
and made for 
some neutral port. 

437. Would 
England take 
sides? Each side 
hoped for sympathy from Europe, and especially from 
England. The South knew that its cotton was needed 
abroad. In England were hundreds of cotton mills. If 
these could not get the cotton, they would have to 
shut down. Thousands of workingmen would be out 
of work. Surely, thought southerners, England would 




n/ 1 



A BLOCKADE RUNNER LOADED WITH COTTON FOR 
EUROPE 



334 



The\War Between the States 



not consent to a blockade that shut off the cotton 
supply. "Cotton is King," they said, "and will have 
its' way." 

The North, in turn, knew that England was opposed 
to slavery. Was not that a bond between them ? Surely, 
they said, England would favor the anti-slavery side. 

Each side was doomed to disappointment, for England 
quickly formed an agreement with France to remain neutral, 
while recognizing the "war rights" of the Confederacy. 

438. The Trent affair. It is hard 
to keep neutral while a great war 
is going on. England found it so, 
and in the fall of 1861 came near 
being drawn into our war. The 
South still hoped 
for help from 



Europe, and sent --:4— -—• 




y, ;- ■:'riiiVaailBBla7>.j3 , 




THE BLOCKADE OF THE SOUTHERN PORTS 

John SHdell and James M. Mason to England and France 
to see what could be done. They ran through the 
blockade, and at Havana took passage on the English 



The Blockade and England 335 

ship "Trent." The next day the "Trent" was stopped 
on the high seas by a warship of the United States under 
Captain Wilkes. Mason and Slidell were forcibly taken 
from her. 

In the excitement of the moment the act was praised 
throughout the North. Wilkes was a hero, and Congress 
gave him a vote of thanks. But England was ablaze 
with anger at the insult to her flag, and openly talked of 
war. The situation was critical, but calmer judgment 
quickly came on both sides of the water. England 
made a courteous demand that Mason and Slidell be 
released. The United States granted it. They were 
put upon an English vessel, and the incident was closed. 

439. The "Merrimac" threatens the blockade. Month 
by month the blockade grew tighter. More ships were 
added to the Union navy, the southern ports were more 
closely guarded, and it became harder and harder for the 
runners to get by. What could be done to break the grip 
of the navy? 

In the navy yard at Norfolk the Confederates found 
a sunken wooden vessel named the "Merrimac." They 
raised it, remade the upper part, covered it thickly with 
iron, and put cannon on board. By March 8, 1862, she 
was ready, and under Captain Buchanan sailed forth into 
Hampton Roads to destroy the blockading warships there. 
She was a strange-looking monster as she came through 
the calm water like a " half -submerged crocodile." The 
ships and the shore batteries rained shot and shell upon 
her, but they had no more effect than hail on a tin roof. 
She made direct for the "Cumberland," and drove her 
great ram into the vessel's side. With flags flying and 
guns firing, the "Cumberland" went down. The "Con- 
gress" seeking safety ran into shallow water, but was 



336 



The War Between the States 



easily set on fire. Satisfied with her day's work, the 
"Merrimac" steamed away, intending to return the next 
day and destroy the other ships. It was an anxious night 
for the Union navy. It seemed to have met its conqueror. 
Would the blockade be broken? 

440. "Monitor" and "Merrimac." That night an- 
other queer-looking boat came into Hampton Roads, and 




THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE "MONITOR" AND THE "MERRIMAC" 



by the light of the burning "Congress" took its place near 
the remaining warships. This was the "Monitor," the 
invention of John Ericsson, and built in the Brooklyn 
Navy Yard. Her iron deck was almost level with the 
water. On it was nothing but a round turret of thick 
iron. In this were two large guns, which could turn 
with the turret in any direction. At a distance it looked 
like "a cheese box on a raft." 

When the "Merrimac" returned next day to finish her 
work, the "Monitor," under Lieutenant Worden, came 
out to meet her. A fierce battle began at close range. 
The little "Monitor" proved a very different enemy from 
the wooden warships. For two hours shot glanced harm- 
lessly from her thick iron turret. Then an officer on the 



The War in the Mississippi Valley 337 

"Merrimac" asked a gunner why he stopped firing. 
"I can do her as much damage by snapping my thumb 
at her every two minutes and a half," was his reply. 
The big guns of the "Monitor" were equally useless 
against the iron sides of the "Merrimac." It was a 
drawn battle. But the destructive work of the "Merri- 
mac" had been stopped, and the blockade continued. 

Yet the battle was an important one. It showed that 
wooden war vessels were doomed. In the future the 
great men-of-war would have to be of iron and steel. 

THE WAR IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY 

441. The struggle for Missouri. Now that war had 
begun, each side looked anxiously toward the border slave 
States. It soon became clear that 
Maryland and Delaware, although 
containing many southern sympa- 
thizers, would stay in the Union. 
Kentucky was inclined to do the 
same thing (§430). 

In Missouri the situation was 
more uncertain. Governor Jackson 
strongly favored the South and did 
his best to bring the State into the a southern battle-flag 

_, . , _,^ _. • T-« -r«i • Known as the "Southern Cross" 

Confederacy. But l^rancis P. Blair 

and others were equally eager to hold it in the Union. 
Each side raised troops; after hard fighting, the Union 
forces gained control and held the State. 

442. The Confederate line of defense. Kentucky 
remained in the Union. ^-^ But she gave many of her sons 
to the Confederacy and some of its ablest generals. The 
first southern line of defense ran through the State from 
Columbus on the Mississippi River to Bowling Green and 




338 



The War Between the States 



on toward the East. Where it crossed the Tennessee and 
the Cumberland rivers, it dipped sHghtly into Tennessee. 
At this point, where it came farthest south. General 
Grant determined to break through if he could. 

443. The fall of Forts Henry and Donelson. With 
the help of Commodore Foote and a fleet of gunboats 




'H\f 






ONE OF FOOTE'S GUNBOAT FLEET 

This fleet played an important part in the opening of the Tennessee and Cumberland 

rivers to Union troops 

Grant'"'^ moved against Fort Henry, which guarded the 
point where the line crossed the Tennessee River. The 
boats shelled it heavily. The fort soon fell (February 6, 
1862), but most of its garrison escaped to Fort Donelson, 
on the Cumberland River twelve miles away. 

Against this fort Grant now made an attack. He was 
full of hope, but Fort Donelson proved far stronger than 
he expected. Reinforcements had come to defend it. 
The gunboats were no match for the guns in the fort. 
They were easily driven off. Foote was wounded. Sleet 
and snow set in. Gloom spread through the army. 
Grant tightened his Hnes and settled down to wait. 

Suddenly the Confederates in the fort made a desperate 
attempt to cut their way out. They nearly succeeded; 
but Grant hurried up, drove them back, and demanded 
"unconditional surrender." Some of the garrison 



The War in the Mississippi Valley 



339 



escaped, but over 12,000 men were taken, besides many- 
guns and a large quantity of supplies (February 16, 1862). 
444. A new line of defense. This was the first great 
victory that had come to cheer the heart of the North, 
and there was much rejoicing. Grant's name was on 
every one's lips. Remembering that his initials were 




CAMPAIGNS FOR THE WESTERN BORDER STATES 
The Confederate first and second lines of defense in the Mississippi Valley, 1862. The first 
turning point of the war between the States 

U. S., the people now called him "Unconditional 
Surrender Grant . ' ' 

In the South there was sadness. The loss in men 
and supplies was heavy. But this was not all. The 
Cumberland and the Tennessee rivers were now open, 
and Union troops pushed up them. Nashville and most 
of Tennessee passed into their hands. Grant's army 
camped at Pittsburg Landing, and the center of the 
Confederacy was threatened. 

To meet this danger troops were hurried forward from 
all points to Corinth, Mississippi. The Confederates 



340 



The War Between the States 



had given up Columbus, but had fortified other strong 
points on the Mississippi. From that river their new 
line of defense now ran eastward to Corinth and then in 
a slight curve to Chattanooga. 

445. The Battle of Shiloh. General Albert Sidney 
Johnston was in command of the Confederates. He was 

eager to win back the 
ground that had been 
lost. But Grant's army- 
lay in the way, and other 
troops were coming to 
join it. Johnston made 
up his mind to crush 
Grant before help 
reached him, and made 
a sudden attack on 
April 6, 1862. All day 
the battle raged. Slowly 
the Union forces were 
driven back past Shiloh 
From a photograph Church, from whlch the 

ALBERT SIDNEY JOHNSTON K f f1 f V 'f 

.1 brave Southern general who fell in the Battle DattlC taKCS ItS name. 

''f Shiloh Many were captured. 

Others crowded along the river bank, seeking some way 
to escape. A great victory seemed to await the Con- 
federates. But night came on, 20,000 fresh Union sol- 
diers arrived, and the next day the tide of battle turned. 
Step by step the Confederates were now forced back. 
Night found them once more in Corinth. 

Never in our country had so many men fought in a 
battle. The losses on both sides were heavy. In many 
a home in the North and in the South there was grief 
when the news came. Among the dead was General 




The War in the Mississippi Valley 341 

Johnston, the Confederate commander. He fell in the 
thick of the fight. He had just sent his own surgeon 
to attend the wounded Union men, saying: "They 
were our enemies a moment ago; now they are our 
prisoners. Take care of them." 

General Halleck, who was at the head of the Union 
forces in the west, now took command. More soldiers 
were added, and with 100,000 men he moved slowly for- 
ward toward Corinth. The Confederates were forced to 
give up the town (May 30, 1862). It was an important 
railroad center, and its loss was keenly felt. 

446. The Mississippi River. The Union army was now 
in the heart of the South. But a strong and watchful 
southern army still stood in its way. Where should the 
next blow be struck? Could the Mississippi River be 
opened as the Tennessee had been? If so, the Con- 
federacy would be cut in two, and neither half could help 
the other. 

Island No. 10 had already been taken. On June 6 
the northern gunboats came as far as Memphis. The 
Confederate boats met them. Crowds gathered on the 
high river bank and watched the combat in the early 
morning sunlight. The North won, Memphis passed into 
its hands, and the river was opened as far south as 
Vicksburg. 

447. The fall of New Orleans. In the meantime stir- 
ring events had taken place at New Orleans. This was 
the largest city .in the South, and it controlled the lower 
Mississippi. Could it be captured? The South thought 
not. Some distance below the city were two strong 
forts, St. Philip and Jackson. Great iron chains had 
been stretched across the river. Above these was a small 
fleet of gunboats. Thus protected the city felt safe. 



342 



The War Between the States 



It was a hard place to take, but the attempt was made. 
A large fleet was sent under Farragut, and with it 15,000 
soldiers under Butler. . For five days and nights the 
mortar boats poured their shells into the forts. Two 
daring gunboats in the darkness of the night sHpped up 
and broke the river chains. Finally Farragut gave the 
signal, and at two o'clock in the morning of April 24, his 
fleet boldly nioved up the river. They were soon dis- 
covered by the forts and the Confederate boats, and a 
desperate battle began. Blazing rafts lit up the scene. 
When the forts were passed, Farragut easily defeated 
the small Confederate vessels, and New Orleans lay at 

his mercy. In the city there were 
busy scenes. Many people were 
hurrying away, others were burn- 
ing bales of cotton and war 
material. 

Butler and his soldiers followed 
the fleet, and took possession of 
the city on May i, 1862. 

The northern forces now 
pushed on up the river. The 
South, however, held the part 
of it between Port Hudson and 
Vicksburg. Supplies could yet 
be sent from one half of the Con- 
federacy to the other. 
448. Bragg invades Kentucky. 
The Confederates were not discouraged. They had lost 
ground, but they now planned to regain it by a bold 
stroke. General Braxton Bragg, who was in command, 
shifted most of his troops to Chattanooga. He then 
planned a rapid movement into Tennessee and Kentucky, 




Courtesy of Grand Array Hall and 
Memorial ABsoeiation, Chicago 

BRAXTON BRAGG 

General Bragg was a brave and 
skillful officer 



The War in the Mississippi Valley 



343 




Morgan and Forrest were first sent on dashing cavalry- 
raids. Kirby Smith next marched with 12,000 men 
from eastern Tennessee, won 
a victory at Richmond, 
Kentucky, and came within 
a few miles of Cincinnati. 
Bragg himself with the main 
body of his soldiers now 
moved suddenly from Chat- 
tanooga northward. On he 
went, across Tennessee and 
far into Kentucky. Louis- 
ville was almost in his hands. 
The North was anxious. 

Bragg had appealed to 
the Kentuckians to join him. 
He had even set up a gov- 
ernment at Frankfort. But 
popular support was lacking, 
slipped past him into Louisville, and the Confederates 
fell back. There was a hard battle at Perryville (October 
8, 1862) and Bragg made his way back to Chattanooga. 

In the meantime Grant, who had succeeded Halleck, 
determined to attack the Confederates whom Bragg had 
left to watch him. His plans did not work smoothly. 
Rosecrans failed to defeat General Sterling Price at luka. 
Price joined Van Dorn, and the two now attacked 
Corinth. But there they were defeated. Rosecrans, 
under Grant, directed the Union forces at Corinth. He 
was highly praised, and was promoted to Buell's place. 

People in the North were constantly demanding that 
Bragg be crushed. Instead he had moved northward to 
Murfreesboro. His cavalry under Morgan, Forrest, and 



From a photograph 
NATHAN B. FORREST 
Forrest volunteered as a private, and became 
one of the greatest cavalry leaders of the war 

Buell with a Union army 



344 The War Between the States 

Wheeler was scouring the country. On December 31, 
1862, Rosecrans attacked him. For three days the 
battle raged. The Union loss was the greater, but the 
Confederates withdrew. 

Bragg's invasion had not done all that he hoped. 
But it had diverted the Union armies for a time from 
their own plans, and his army was still able to fight. 

THE WAR IN THE EAST 

449. McClellan moves toward Richmond. McClel- 
lan had carefully drilled his army near Washington 
(§434). It was now a fine body of soldiers, and ready 
to move on Richmond. How should he go? Three 
ways were possible: (i) The direct land route, (2) a 
roundabout way through the Shenandoah Valley, (j) by 
water down the bay and then by land between the James 
and the York rivers. McClellan chose the third way. 
McDowell was to come by land and join him near Rich- 
mond. Other troops were to guard the Shenandoah 
Valley against a Confederate raid on Washington. 

Early in March, 1862, McClellan started with his 
army down the bay. Soon after landing he found the 
way blocked by fortifications at Yorktown. While he 
delayed, the Confederates withdrew unharmed. The 
Union army now began its march toward Richmond. 
It fought its way up the peninsula between the James 
and the York rivers to White House Landing and on 
toward the city. A part of the troops pressed forward 
until they could see the spires of the churches and hear 
the bells. The Confederate capital was in great danger. 
General Joseph E. Johnston, collecting all the southern 
troops at hand, defended it bravely. He attacked the 
Union army at Fair Oaks and checked its progress. 



The War in the East 



345 



450. Jackson in the valley. McClellan waited for 
McDowell to join him at White House Landing. But 
he did not come. Their plans had been upset. "Stone- 
wall" Jackson was dashing through the Shenandoah 




THE PENINSULAR CAMPAIGNS 
The Operations around Richmond and the campaigns in Maryland and Pennsylvania 

Valley. He outgeneraled Banks and Fremont, and 
defeated them both. Washington was threatened and 
McDowell dared not leave it. To add to the alarm, 
General Stuart's Confederate cavalry circled far behind 
McClellan's army, tore up railroads, and burned supplies 



346 



The War Between the States 



451, The "Seven Days' Battle." General Johnston had 
been badly wounded, and General Robert E. Lee'" now 
took command of the Confederate army. He at once 
began a series of terrific attacks on the Union army known 
as the "Seven Days' Battle." The northern men re- 
sisted bravely, and at Malvern Hill (July i, 1862) had 
the best of the fighting. But they lost ground, and 
finally withdrew to Harrison's Landing on the James. 

McClellan's ' ' Peninsular Cam- 
paign" had failed. A little 
later his army was taken back 
to Washington by water. 

452. The second Battle of 
Bull Run, or Manassas. The 
government at Washington 
was aroused. All troops in 
reach were brought together 
under General Pope near 
Washington. While McClel- 
lan's army was on its way 
to join Pope, General Lee 
struck quickly. With the help 
of Jackson and Longstreet, 
he defeated Pope's army on 
the old battle field of Bull Run (August 30, 1862), and 
drove him back to Washington. 

453. Lee invades Maryland. Once more there were 
anxious days in the capital. Would the Confederates 
attack it ? Many thought they would. But Lee, instead, 
moved rapidly northward, crossed the Potomac, and 
passed into Maryland. It was a bold move, and left 
Richmond exposed. But no attack on it was probable 
just then, for all northern troops in the east were needed 




From a portrait painted by Browne 
ROBERT EDWARD LEE 

One of the greatest generals of history 



The War in the East 



347 



to meet Lee. Who should command these troops? 
McClellan had failed to take Richmond. But he was a 
fine organizer and the soldiers liked him. So once more 




GENERAL LEE ADVANCES INTO MARYLAND 

he was called to take charge, as he had been after the 
first Battle of Bull Run, and soon had the disorganized 
forces in order (§434). 

The two armies met at Sharpsburg, on Antietam 
Creek, in one of the greatest battles of the war (Septem- 
ber 17, 1862). Both sides realized its importance, and 
fought with a heroism of which our country is today 
proud. When the day closed, neither side had won. 
Lee waited a day, and then slowly recrossed the Potomac 
into Virginia. 

454. The Emancipation Proclamation. While Lee was 
on his way back into Virginia, Lincoln made one of the 
most famous statements that ever came from the pen 
of a president. This statement declared that on and 
after the first day of the following January all slaves in 
any State then in arms against the United States 
should be free. 



348 The War Between the States 

This was not a sudden act on the part of Lincoln. He 
had always been opposed to slavery. He had tried to 
keep it out of the territories, but had said that he did 
not intend to interfere with it in the States. He believed 
that in time of peace the president had no power to 
touch it there. Then came war, and with it new powers 
and new duties. Men wondered whether he would now 
strike at slavery in the Southern States. 

First he tried to persuade the border States to do away 
with it. He suggested, and Congress agreed, that the 
nation ought to help pay the owners for the slaves in 
any State that would free them. But no State accepted 
the plan. 

What should he do next? Many anti-slavery men 
were urging him to free the slaves in the South. Did 
the war give him the power to do so? If he did, would 
he lose the border States ? Long and carefully he thought 
it over. Finally he made up his mind. The slaves in 
southern fields and about southern camps were by 
their labor helping the southern cause. To free them 
would be to strike a hard blow at the Confederacy. 
He resolved to declare them free "as a war measure." 

But had the time come to do this? The northern 
armies had been driven back from Virginia. Would it 
be thought that he was desperate, and that this was the 
last chance to win the war? Anxiously he waited for a 
more favorable moment. When Lee's invasion of Mary- 
land failed, he seized the opportunity and issued his 
famous statement (September 22, 1862). 

In the North it aroused a good deal of opposition, 
especially in the border States. But the great majority 
of the people were pleased and stood by him. In the 
South the act was strongly condemned. It was thought 



The War in the East 



349 



to be a political move to please the Abolitionists and 
to win the favor of foreign countries. 

On January i, 1863, Lincoln issued the final Emanci- 
pation Proclamation, stating that the slaves referred to 
were now and forever free. It did not touch the slaves 
in the States that were not then in arms against the 
United States. 

455. Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville. When Lee 
slowly withdrew from Antietam, there was an outcry 
in the North against McClellan. Why had he not at- 
tacked Lee as he was crossing the river? McClellan was 
removed and Burnside put 
in his place. Now began 
another advance toward 
Richmond. At Fredericks- 
burg on the Rappahannock it 
was stopped. Across the river 
rose the hills of Fredericks- 
burg. They had been fortified, 
and along them lay the army 
of Lee. On December 13, 
1862, Burnside made a des- 
perate attack. Boldly the 
men crossed the river and charged the heights. But the 
Confederates drove them back with terrible slaughter. 
Again and again they attacked with the same result. 
Night put an end to the struggle. The Union army 
had lost 12,000 men, twice as many as the Confederates. 

It was a gloomy time for the North. But Hooker 
now took Burnside's place and set to work getting ready 
for a new movement toward Richmond. 

With the coming of spring Hooker determined to 
strike Lee's army. He divided his army into two parts. 




A CONFEDERATE SHARPSHOOTER HID- 
DEN BY THE FOLIAGE OF THE TREES 



350 



The War Between the States 




CONFEDERATE BATTLE-FLAG 
OF 1863 



They crossed the river above and below Fredericksburg, 
hoping to crush Lee between them. But "Stonewall" 
Jackson made a rapid march around 
Hooker's right wing, and fell upon it 
suddenly at Chancellorsville. Lee 
drove the other wing back across the 
river. Although Hooker had twice 
as many men as the Confederates, 
he was badly defeated (May 3, 1863). 
His losses were very heavy. The 
Confederates won the battle, but 
they lost ' ' Stonewall ' ' Jackson . He 
was badly wounded and died a few days later with the 
famous words upon his lips, ' ' Let us cross over the river 
and rest under the shade of the trees." The whole Con- 
federacy mourned, but the grief of his soldiers knew no 
bounds. 

456. Gettysburg. The victories of Fredericksburg and 
Chancellorsville stirred the South. Lee himself believed 
the time had come to carry the war into the Northern 
States. His army was full of eagerness, and he felt con- 
fidence in it. Toward the end of June he set forth. 
Rapidly he pushed on across Maryland and into Penn- 
sylvania. The North was full of alarm. Men anxiously 
read the bulletins of his progress. In Philadelphia busi- 
ness stopped. The Union army hurried after Lee, and 
General Meade was now put in command of it. 

At Gettysburg the two armies met. The battle lasted 
for three days. On the first day the advance forces of 
both sides fought. The Union soldiers were driven back. 
The second day found the two armies facing each other 
on two lines of hills. The Confederates were drawn 
up on Seminary Ridge, while opposite them on Cemetery 



The War in the East 



351 



Ridge stood the Union troops. There was hard fighting 
on both ends of these Hnes. The Confederates drove 
back the left wing of their opponents, but failed to take 
Little Round Top, the key to that position. 

On the third day the battle raged again. In the 
afternoon the crisis came. Lee decided to make a final 
attack upon the Union center. For more than an hour 




PICKETT S CHARGE 



his guns poured shot and shell into their lines. When 
the clouds of smoke rolled away, 15,000 Confederates led 
by General Pickett rushed forward in their famous 
charge. Nearly a mile away across the valley the 
northern soldiers watched the onrushing men in gray. 
Half the distance was passed when the northern guns 
blazed forth. Holes were torn in the southern ranks. 
They never faltered, but closed up and moved on. 
Now the rifles sent on them a rain of death. Their 
ranks grew thin, but on they came. Now they were in 



352 



The War Between the States 



the trenches, and a hand-to-hand struggle began at the 
stone wall that ran along the hilltop. For a moment 

the fate of the battle and 



of the Confederacy hung 
in the balance. Then 
Pickett's men gave way 
and were swept back over 
the valley (July 3, 1863). 
Lee's invasion had failed 
and he slowly moved back 
to the South. 




THE BATTLEFIELD OF GETTYSBURG 

Note the disposition of the contending forces 



THE WEST ONCE MORE 

457. Fighting for Vicks- 
burg. The South still 
held the Mississippi from 
Vicksburg to Port Hud- 
son. Food and soldiers 
were still constantly sent across the river from Arkansas, 
Texas and Louisiana to help Bragg and Lee. 

Grant knew this, and decided to strike at Vicksburg. 
If he could take it, he felt sure he could open the river 
and cut the Confederacy in two. But it was a hard 
place to capture. It stood upon a high bluff on the east 
bank of the Mississippi. Behind it were strong forti- 
fications. A Confederate army under General Pember- 
ton protected it. 

The first attack was made from the north side, and 
failed. Grant now made up his mind to move against 
it from the south. To do this he needed the help of the 
gunboats that lay above the city. Could they pass it 
in safety? Porter, who was in command of them, de- 
cided to try. On a dark night the fleet swung into line, 



The West Once More 



353 



Porter leading in his flagship. Soon a cannon gave the 
alarm. They were discovered. The Confederate bat- 
teries opened, and the heights of Vicksburg were a sheet 
of flame. Houses were set on fire to throw light on the 
water. But the boats went on, and daylight found them 
below the city with only slight losses. 

Grant now moved on against Vicksburg from the south 
and east. He drove off Joseph E. Johnston, who was 
coming to its help with whatever troops he could collect. 
Then he met and defeated Pemberton's forces at Cham- 
pion Hills, and drove them into Vicksburg. With the 
aid of the gunboats Grant attacked the fortifications, 
but was driven back with heavy losses. He now settled 
down to besiege the city. 

458. The fall of Vicks- 
burg. Closer and closer 
drew the lines about 
Vicksburg. The big guns 
shelled it day and night 
for weeks. Houses were 
torn and destroyed. The 
people sought safety in 
caves. Food failed. Mule 
meat became a luxury. 
Sharpshooters picked off 
men whose heads showed 
above the works. Hunger 
and care wore men thin, 
yet sometimes amidst the 
horrors of war the soldiers 
of one side joked with those of the other as they lay in 
their trenches. Sometimes they swapped tobacco and 
other small articles that were dear to their hearts.. 




THE CAMP.\IGN AROUND VICKSBURG 

The doited line shows Grant's line of advance 

from Natchez to Jackson 



354 



The War Between the States 



Finally the defenders were worn out, and July 4, 1863, 
Vicksburg surrendered. The Confederates had made a 
brave defense; and as they marched out, the Union sol- 
diers gave them a hearty cheer. 

The loss in men and guns was heavy. But that was 
not all. Fort Hudson was taken a few days later, and the 
Mississippi River was now open for its entire length. 
The Confederacy was split in two. Vicksburg fell one 
day after the battle of Gettysburg. The two brought 
sadness to every southern heart. In the North there was 
great rejoicing. 

459. The struggle at Chattanooga. After the fall of 
Vicksburg, all eyes turned to Chattanooga, standing upon 
the Tennessee River. It was a railroad center. It was 
the gateway to what was now the western part of the 
Confederacy. To take it became the Union purpose. 
Rosecrans had rested his army after the battle of 

Murfreesboro. He was 
now ready to advance on 
Bragg, who lay between 
him and Chattanooga. 
To delay this, Morgan 
was sent with a troop of 
Confederate cavalry on 
a daring raid behind 
him and into Kentucky. 
On he dashed, even 
crossing the Ohio River 
into the Northern 
States. It was a brilliant but reckless thing to do. He 
was soon surrounded and only a part of his men escaped. 
He himself was captured. But it gave Lee time to send 
Longstreet and some troops to help Bragg. 




CHATTANOOGA AND VICINITY 



The West Once More 



355 



Rosecrans now moved his forces so skillfully that Bragg 
was slowly forced back to a point just beyond Chatta- 
nooga. Here, at Chickamauga Creek, the armies met in 
one of the fiercest battles of the 
war (September 19-20, 1863). 
With Longstreet's aid Bragg 
completely routed the right 
wing of the northern troops, 
who fled in confusion to Chat- 
tanooga. But General George 
H. Thomas, who commanded 
their left wing, held his ground 
against all attacks. When 
night came he skillfully with- 
drew and joined the others in 
Chattanooga. From his firm 
stand the soldiers called him 
the "Rock of Chickamauga." 

Once more fortune seemed 
to favor General Bragg. The 
Union army was closely shut up in Chattanooga. 
Wheeler's Confederate cavalry was raiding the country 
and destroying supplies. The North was alarmed. 
Help was hurried forward. Grant came from the West 
and took command. Hooker joined him from the East. 
A way was soon made for food and supplies to enter 
the city, and there was no longer fear of a siege. But 
General Bragg 's army still held Lookout Mountain and 
Missionary Ridge. From these heights the Confederate 
soldiers looked down on the valley of the Tennessee and 
the northern camps. Who would take the next step? 

460. Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. Early 
on the morning of November 24, 1863, Hooker began to 




From a war-time photograph 
GEORGE H. THOMAS 
General Thomas is called "The Rock of 
Chickamauga" 



356 



The War Between the States 



storm the Confederate position on Lookout Mountain. 
The way was rough and steep, but his men pushed on. Over 
bowlders and across ravines they went, climbing steadily up- 
ward. Often 
the mists hid 
them f ro m 
their friends 
below and 
their foes 
above. The 
Confederates 
resisted 
strongly, but 
when evening 
came Union 
troops held 
the mountain, 
and that night 
their camp- 

THE VALLEY OF THE TENNESSEE FROM LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN fjl-gc ShonC 

from its top and slopes. Sometimes the struggle is called 
the "Battle above the Clouds." Here Hooker won back 
the reputation for military skill which he lost at Chan- 
,cellorsville. 

Missionary Ridge still remained in the hands of Bragg 
and his army. Without waiting the Union army attacked 
this on the next day. The struggle lasted all the morning, 
for the Confederates held firmly. But in the afternoon 
Thomas' troops made a brilliant charge up the sides of 
the ridge, and drove the southern men from their strong- 
hold. The battle turned against Bragg, and he retreated 
hastily into Georgia. 

Chattanooga was in the hands of the northern army. 




The Effect oj the War on Politics 357 

Longstreet had been sent against the Union forces at 
Knoxville, but was defeated. East as well as west 
Tennessee was now held by the North. 

THE EFFECT OF THE WAR ON POLITICS 

461. Opposition to the war. When the great struggle 
began in 1861, the war spirit swept both sections. In 
the North, as in the South, men lost interest in political 
parties. Everybody was for war. 

But as the contest went on, the situation in the two 
sections grew different. In the South men felt that 
their firesides were threatened. Parties disappeared and 
all rallied to the cause. Some criticized the plans of their 
government, some the movements of the army. But 
there was no organized opposition. 

In the North, when the first excitement passed, people 
began to differ about the great questions raised by the 
war. Many agreed heartily with Lincoln's plans, but 
there were many who did not. Some thought he acted 
too -slowly about the slaves. Others believed his famous 
proclamation hasty and unwise (§454). He was blamed 
for choosing poor generals, and was held responsible for 
the defeats. When it became necessary to draft men for 
the army there was serious opposition. In New York 
City mobs filled the streets, and there was dangerous 
rioting for several days. Some did not have their hearts 
in the war. When trials and defeats came, they grew 
discouraged. They doubted whether the South could 
be conquered, and talked of peace. The division of 
public opinion showed itself in politics. Most of the 
Republicans and the ' ' war Democrats ' ' stood by Lincoln ; 
but those who opposed hitn made a strong party, and 
often elected their men. 
13 



35^ The War Between the States 

462. Lincoln reelected. When the presidential elec- 
tion of 1864 drew near, both parties nominated candi- 
dates. Lincoln's supporters called themselves the 
National Union party, and of course named him. For 
vice-president they put forward Andrew Johnson of 
Tennessee, a war Democrat. 

The Democrats nominated General McClellan, declar- 
ing the war had failed and it was time to settle things 
peacefully. McClellan accepted the nomination but 
refused to accept the declaration "The war is a failure." 
Many of Lincoln's opponents were for McClellan, and 
Lincoln's friends became anxious. But before the election 
took place the tide of the war turned strongly in the 
North's favor, and Lincoln was elected by a large vote. 

THE GEORGIA CAMPAIGN 

463. The Confederacy loses Atlanta. After the fight- 
ing ceased around Chattanooga, the Confederate army 
withdrew to Dalton, Georgia. Here they went into 
winter quarters. Joseph E. Johnston took command, 
and carefully fortified his position. 

Grant was called to the East to oppose Lee. Sherman 
took his place in command of the Union army in the west, 
and began to look eagerly toward Atlanta. It was now, 
next to Richmond, the most important point in the South. 
It had factories and foundries. Railroads met there. 
If he could take it, he would be in the heart of Georgia. 
He might even press on to the sea, and cut off Alabama 
and Mississippi from the States farther east. 

With the coming of spring, Sherman put his army in 
motion. He outnumbered Johnston, and by flanking 
movements slowly pushed him back toward Atlanta. 
The Confederates retreated along the railroad, and tore 



The Georgia Campaign 



359 



it up as they went. But Sherman's men rebuilt it almost 
as fast as it was destroyed, and pressed steadily on. 
There was frequent fighting. At Kenesaw Mountain 
they lost heavily when they tried 
to break through the Confeder- 
ate line. Johnston continued to 
retreat skillfully until he was 
within a few miles of Atlanta. 
President Davis now became 
dissatisfied with Johnston. He 
thought him too cautious, and 
put General Hood in his place. 

Heavy fighting at once began 
around Atlanta. Both sides lost 
heavily, but the city remained 
in the hands of the Confederates. 
Sherman now threatened to sur- 
round it. Hood, not wishing to 
be shut in, blew up his powder 
magazines, and moved out of the city (September 2, 1864). 
The next day Sherman's army entered Atlanta. 

464. Hood's plans fail. There was great rejoicing in 
the North when Atlanta fell. But Hood's army had 
escaped, and Sherman's position was not a safe one. He 
was a long way from his base, and his supplies came over 
a single railroad. If this were destroyed, he might have 
to retreat. 

Hood knew this, and acted promptly. Moving rapidly 
to the north, he made vigorous attacks on the railroad. 
But the Union forces were too strong, and he was driven 
off. Now Hood decided to strike boldly northward, 
hoping to draw Sherman from Atlanta. Swinging to the 
west and then to the north, he crossed the Tennessee 




From a photograph taken in 1870 
JOSEPH EGGLESTON JOHNSTON 

One of the leading Confederate generals 



36o 



The War Between the States 



and marched toward Nashville. He clashed with Scho- 
field at Franklin, where was fought one of the fiercest 
pitched battles of the war. Schofield now joined Thomas, 
who had been sent by Sherman to keep open communi- 
cations with the North. Hood pressed forward and for 
two weeks the armies faced one another. In the North 
many grew impatient, and wondered whether Hood 




THE GEORGIA CAMPAIGN AND THE RED RIVER EXPEDITION 

would escape again. At last, on December 15, 1864, 
Thomas made the attack on Nashville. The battle lasted 
two days. The Confederates, although fighting bravely, 
were badly defeated, and lost heavily. They retreated 
across the Tennessee. Thomas' army followed them into 
Alabama, capturing thousands. Hood's plans had failed. 
He was relieved of the command. Later on what remained 
of the army was again given to Johnston (§474). 



The Georgia Campaign 



361 



465. Sherman's march to the sea. Sherman had 
refused to be drawn away from Atlanta by Hood's 
march northward. Instead he made up his mind to do 
just the opposite, and strike toward the sea. 

On November 15, 1864, he set out on his march to 
the sea. Leaving his base of suppHes far in the rear, he 
Hved on the country. His army numbered 60,000 men. 
As they moved onward, they left ruin and destruction 
in a pathway sixty miles wide. Railroads were torn up. 
Engines were wrecked, cars were burned, and rails were 
heated and twisted around the trees. Houses and barns 
were left in ashes, and their owners reduced to poverty. 
There was much plundering, and the whole region was 
swept bare of food for man and beast. A month after 
Sherman left Atlanta he 
reached the sea at Savannah. 
That city quickly passed 
into his hands. 

466. The Battle of Mobile 
Bay. Each step that the 
Union forces took from 
Chattanooga toward Savan- 
nah made it harder for . 
Mississippi and Alabama to 
communicate with the East. 
At the same time the 
blockade tightened its grip 
on them and threatened to 
stop the bringing in of out- 
side supplies. 

Mobile Bay had been a favorite port for blockade run- 
ners. Farragut believed he could sail in and take it as 
he had done at New Orleans (§447). Two strong forts 




From an engraving after a photograph 
DAVID GLASCOE FARRAGUT 

The first admiral of the Untied Slates navy 



362 The War Between the States 

guarded its entrance. Beyond them lay some gunboats 
and a huge iron ram, the "Tennessee," somewhat Hke 
the "Merrimac." In spite of these dangers, Farragut 
sailed boldly in with a fleet of wooden warships and four 
monitors (August 5, 1864). He himself stood in the 
rigging of his flagship. The fighting was short, but 
violent. Amidst a storm of shot and shell he passed the 
forts. One of his boats was sunk by a torpedo, but he 
kept on. The "Tennessee" under Buchanan, who had 
commanded the "Merrimac," next gave battle to the 
fleet. The shot glanced harmlessly from her iron sides; 
but her engines were weak and her steering gear gave 
way. She became helpless. Farragut's flagship was 
badly injured, and he lost many men. But when the 
battle was over, he held the bay. Later the forts were 
taken by the land forces under General Gordon Granger. 
The city remained in the hands of the Confederates, but 
no more blockade runners stole into Mobile Bay. It was 
not surrendered to the Union forces until April, 1865. 

WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI 

467. Early fighting in Missouri. In the spring of 1861 
Missouri was the scene of a fierce political struggle. 
This quickly led to actual fighting. The Union forces 
were led by Nathaniel Lyon. May 10, 1861 he took as 
prisoners a small body of State troops at Camp Jackson, 
near St. Louis. Several minor contests followed. In 
the meantime those who favored the Confederacy were 
busy collecting troops. , These were under General Price 
(§ 448). Price was joined by a Confederate force and by 
troops from Arkansas. These made 10,000 men. Lyon 
had a somewhat smaller number. The two forces met 
at Wilsons Creek, near Springfield (August 10, 1861). 



West of the Mississippi 363 

General Lyon was killed. His troops were defeated and 
fell back to the middle of the State. Price now marched 
as far north as Lexington, and captured many prisoners 
and a large amount of supplies. For several months he 
held a large part of southwestern Missouri. A govern- 
ment was set up and was formally recognized by the 
Confederacy. But in February, 1862, a strong Union 
force under Curtis arrived and Price was forced across 
the State line into Arkansas. 

468. The Battle of Pea Ridge. Price's forces were 
now joined by other southern troops, and Van Dorn 
took command. He turned on Curtis, and for three days 
they fought at Pea Ridge (March 6-8, 1862). The battle 
at first favored the Confederates, but ended in success 
for the Union side. The Union forces, however, lost 
almost a hundred more in killed, wounded, and missing 
than did the Confederates. The result of this battle 
made it certain that Missouri would not secede from the 
Union. 

Many soldiers from Missouri and Arkansas were now 
transferred to the Confederate armies on the other side 
of the Mississippi. As long as that river could be crossed, 
men and food from these States and from Texas and 
Louisiana contributed largely to the strength of the 
southern cause in the East. 

469. The Red River campaign. As the war went on, 
the valley of the Red River became an important source 
of supplies for the Confederacy. After the fall of New 
Orleans, Banks moved up the Mississippi and the Red 
River with a Union army to attack Shreveport. Porter 
accompanied him with a fleet of gunboats. When near 
Shreveport, he was met and driven back by Confederate 
troops under "Dick" Taylor. Then his gunboats met 



364 



The War Between the States 



with trouble on the river. Finally men and boats gave 
up the expedition and Banks returned to New Orleans. 
Another Union force, which had been sent by Grant to 
meet Banks at Shreveport was defeated by Kirby Smith, 
and withdrew. Smith then remained in control of that 
part of the country until the war ended. 



THE END OF THE WAR 

470. The Confederacy is shut off from the sea. When 
the Southern States seceded, they had no war vessels. 
They were never able to build up a navy to compete with 
that of the North. Instead of trying to do this they sent 
out fast armed ships to prey on its commerce. Some of 
these were "privateers," which went with the approval 
of the government. Others were regular cruisers. The 

most famous of these were the 
"Sumter" and the "Alabama." 
Both of these were com- 
manded by Raphael Semmes, 
and under his skillful manage- 
ment did untold damage to the 
trade of the North. The ' ' Ala- 
bama" was built in England, 
and is said to have destroyed 
between sixty and seventy 
merchant vessels. At last she 
was herself destroyed in a des- 
perate fight with the Union man- 
of-war, "Kearsarge," off the 
coast of France (June 19, 1864). 
By the end of 1864 practically all of these commerce 
destroyers had been sunk, captured, or driven into far- 
away seas. The end was in sight. 




From a photograph 

RAPHAEL SEMMES 

He served the Confederacy in both 

navy and army 



The End of the War 



365 



The heavy, iron-covered rams, like the "Merrimac" 
and the "Tennessee," were also one by one captured or 




THE KEARSARGE SINKS THE ALABAMA 

destroyed. The last and most celebrated of these terrors 
of the sea was the "Albemarle," which lay at Plymouth, 
North Carolina. Lieutenant Gushing resolved to end 
her career. On a dark night in October, 1864, he stole 
quietly up in a small boat, and exploded a torpedo under 
her. He then swam ashore and finally reached the 
Union fleet. 

Step by step the blockade was tightened. Finally 
Fort Fisher, at Wilmington, North Carolina, was taken 
on January 15, 1865, and the last port possible for block- 
ade runners .was closed. The Confederacy was shut 
off from the sea. 

471. From the Wilderness to Cold Harbor. After 
Lee's army returned from Gettysburg, no great move- 
ments took place in the East for some months. In the 
spring of 1864 Grant was put in command of all the 



366 



The War Between the States 



Union armies, and came to direct the campaign against 
Lee. The two armies lay on opposite sides of the 
Rapidan. With 120,000 men Grant crossed the river and 
attacked the Confederates, who had about half as many. 

They met in a region of 
tangled woods and thickets 
known as the ' ' Wilderness. ' ' 
For two days the battling 
armies swayed back and 
forth in the mighty strug- 
gle, but without decisive 
results (May 5-6, 1864). 
Having failed to drive 
Lee back, Grant moved to 
Spottsylvania Court House. 
Here he found Lee in- 
trenched. Again and again 
Grant attacked, only to be 
thrown back with terrible 
losses (May 8-12). In one spot so many men were killed 
that it became known as the "bloody angle." During 
the fighting Grant sent word to Washington : "I propose 
to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer." 

Moving once more. Grant reached Cold Harbor, near 
Richmond, and made a general attack on Lee's lines at 
dawn on June 3. It failed, and the loss of life was so 
great that even Grant gave up the plan of driving straight 
at Richmond. He had lost 50,000 men since the cam- 
paign began. He now crossed the James River and 
extended his lines around Petersburg. 

472. Early threatens Washington. To draw some of 
Grant's forces from Richmond, Lee now sent Early with 
nearly 20,000 men down the Shenandoah Valley to 




From a photograph 



ULYSSES S. GRANT 

Appointed Commander-in-chief of all the 

Union armies, March, 1864 



The End oj the War 3^7 

threaten Washington. Moving rapidly Early crossed 
the Potomac and suddenly appeared before the city 
(July II, 1864). Washington was in terror, but troops 
from Grant's army arrived to protect it, and Early 
returned to Virginia, taking with him many supplies for 
Lee's army. 

473. Sheridan in the valley of Virginia. Grant now 
in his turn sent Sheridan with a strong force to drive 
Early out of the valley and to destroy the supplies in it. 
They met at Winchester (September 19, 1864), and a few 
days later at Fisher's Hill. The fighting was long and 
hard, but Early was defeated and driven back, Sheridan 
now turned to the task of laying waste the beautiful 
valley. Houses, barns, mills, and grain were burned. 
Stock of all kinds was driven off. So little of any value 
was left that Sheridan is reported to have said, "A crow 
flying over it would have to carry his rations with him." 

In the midst of this work Early suddenly returned and 
routed Sheridan's troops at Cedar Creek (October 19). 
They fled in confusion toward Winchester. Here Sheri- 
dan had stopped over night on his return from a visit 
to Washington. As he rode southward in the morning 
to rejoin his men, he heard the sound of firing. Retreat- 
ing soldiers soon told the story of the rout. Hurrying 
forward, he called on his men to rally and face the Con- 
federates. They answered with cheers. In a few hours 
Sheridan had his troops again in fighting trim. He led 
them against Early's men and drove them back up the 
valley. 

474. Sherman marches northward. In February, 
1865, Sherman left Savannah and started on a long 
march through the Carolinas. This was a longer and 
much more difficult march than the one from Atlanta to 



368 



The War Between the States 



the sea. He passed through Columbia, and the city was 
burned. Charleston, which had withstood several attacks 
by sea, fell into his hands. 

Joseph E. Johnston was put in command of what was 
left of Hood's army. Gathering all the soldiers that he 
could get, he opposed Sherman's march as best he could. 

At Bentonville, North Carolina, 
he fell suddenly on a part of 
Sherman's army. There was a 
hard fight, but more troops came 
up and Johnston was outnum- 
bered and driven off (March 19, 
1865). Sherman went on to 
Goldsboro. While he was plan- 
ning to join Grant, he heard of 
Lee's surrender. 

475. Richmond is given up. 
Steadily the Union forces closed 
in on Richmond. Their losses 
were heavy, but new men took 
the place of those who fell. The 
Confederate armies grew smaller 
and smaller. There were no 
more men in the South to make good their losses. As 
Grant's lines lengthened, Lee's became thinner. At last 
there came a time when neither bravery nor skill could 
longer hold them. Grant's men were breaking through. 
April 2 was Sunday. As President Davis sat in St. 
Paul's church at morning service a message was handed 
him that Lee could no longer hold Richmond, and that 
it must be given up that night. Quietly he left the church, 
and the final scene began. Officials hurried off with 
papers and records. Citizens anxiously made ready for 







Courtesy of Grand Army Hall and 
Memorial Association, Chicag'o 

JOHN BROWN GORDON 

A Confederate general of the greatest gal- 
lantry. He was wounded eight times. 
At Appomattox he commanded 
one wing of Lee's Army 



The End of the War 



369 



new conditions. Soldiers were busy getting together such 
stores as could be carried, and destroying others. In the 
confusion fires started, and for a time threatened the city. 
At nightfall Lee's soldiers withdrew from Richmond; in 
the morning Grant's came in. The capital of the Con- 
federacy had fallen. 

476. The surrender. Lee's plan was to march by way 
of Danville and join forces with Johnston. He decided 
first to make an assault on Grant's lines and sent General 
J. B. Gordon to attack Fort Stedman. The attack was 
made with vigor but Gordon's forces were far out- 
numbered and he was defeated . Lee reached Appomattox 
Court House and saw that further resistance was useless. 
Unwilling to expose his brave men to further hardship, he 
surrendered (April 9, 1865). 

The terms granted were liberal. The Confederates 
were to lay ^ j 

down their 
arms, go to 
their homes, 
and not to be 
disturbed so 
long as they 
obeyed the 
laws. Offi- 
cers retained 
their swords ; 
and, at Lee's 
suggestion, 
the men were 
permitted to 

keep their horses for plowing.. Grant forbade noisy 
celebration. When it was over and Lee's soldiers crowded 




LEE AFTER THE SURRENDER 

With bared heads and sober faces his troops bade a silent farewell 

to their beloved leader 



37° The War Between the States 

around him, he simply said, "We have fought through 
the war together. I have done my best for you." Then 
he added, "My heart is too full to say more." 

Johnston surrendered at Durham, North Carolina, on 
April 26. Taylor surrendered the troops that he had 
in Alabama and Mississippi on May 24. Kirby Smith, 
who was west of the Mississippi, gave up on May 26. 
Armed resistance ceased. 

President Davis tried in vain to reach Kirby Smith, 
but was captured in southern Georgia. He was put in 
prison at Fortress Monroe, but was finally released on 
bail. Some spoke of trying him; but it was never done. 
He lived for the remainder of his life at Beauvoir, his 
Mississippi home. 

477. The assassination of President Lincohi. On the 
evening of April 14, 1865, Lincoln sat in his box at 
Ford's theater in Washington watching a play. Sud- 
denly James Wilkes Booth entered and fired a shot. 
Lincoln sank in his seat unconscious. There was an 
uproar, and in the confusion Booth escaped. He was 
pursued and shot while hiding in the country. Several 
others were arrested for being in his plot, and were tried. 
They were hanged or imprisoned for life. Lincoln died 
the next morning. 

A wave of sorrow swept the North. In the times 
that tried men's souls he had won public confidence to 
a wonderful degree. His kind heart, his shrewd sense, 
his homely humor had brought him close to all classes 
of men. To them his death was not only a national, but 
a personal, loss. 

In the South, too, the cowardly act stirred a strong 
feeling of indignation. On the day he was shot he had 
said: "I hope there will be no persecution, no bloody 



Facts About the War 371 

work after the war is over." During the harsh months 
that followed, the South had cause to regret that a 
different spirit guided the national policy. 

478. The soldiers go home. When peace came, there 
was a grand review of the northern soldiers in Washing- 
ton. For two days they marched down the broad avenues 
of the city. They were reviewed by their officers, by 
President Johnson, (§489), and by members of Congress, 
while great crowds watched and cheered as they passed. 
Then their banners were furled, and the war-scarred 
veterans dispersed to receive the welcome that awaited 
them at home. 

For the southern soldiers there was no such stately 
scene. There were tender farewells to comrades and to 
those who had led them on many a battle field. Then 
alone, or in small groups, they made their way home as 
best they could. They had fought bravely, but they 
had lost. Their land was desolate, and many found 
their homes in ruin and their loved ones in want. It 
was good to be home; but there was sadness in their 
hearts as once more they set about their daily work. 

FACTS ABOUT THE WAR 

479. The OSS of life. More than 500,000 soldiers 
perished in the war, and many more were permanently 
injured. This loss of men told more quickly on the 
South than on the North, because the population of the 
South was smaller (§377). Practically all southern men 
of military age were in the army, and toward the close 
of the war many old men and boys joined them. 

The North lost as many men, but their places could 
be filled. There were still thousands of others left who 
were able to bear arms. 



372 



The War Between the States 




480. Caring for the soldier. More than half the 
deaths were due to sickness and hardship. Both sides 

did all they could to 
prevent disease and 
to care for the sick. 
There were regular 
surgeons in each 
army, and the hospi- 
tal service was as 
^.^«ss^E.?^^"s«2r^^'- good as conditions 

From a wai-time photograph permitted. But thcir 
SANITARY COMMISSION HEADQUARTERS fCSOUrCCS WCrC lim- 

ited, and the sick and wounded looked to those at home 
for many things to make them comfortable. Much of 
the nourishing food, the linen bandages, and the warm 
covering came from men and women who labored day 
and night to send these things. The Sanitary Com- 
mission was an organization in the North to help care 
for the soldiers. It held fairs, collected money, and 
gave medicine and 
attention to the sick r^W^t 
and wounded. 

The southern soldier 
probably suffered most. 
Hospital resources were 
small, and medicines 
were scarce because of 
the blockade. But what 
the people had was 
given freely. Women 
sewed and knit, and 
sent from their own scanty store of household goods 
to keep warm the boys in gray. These devoted women 




A CONFEDERATE HOSPITAL 



Facts about the War 



373 



MManjk.e< JwngtXXU ~^^^ 



thought it no hardship to work day and night, giving 
up all thought of pleasure, to help their soldiers in 
the field. 

On both sides the churches labored earnestly to help 
and cheer the soldiers. Chaplains served with them, 
held services, and looked after their religious welfare. 
Christian commissions were organized to care for the 
moral well-being of the soldiers. 

481. The destruction of property. A vast amount 
of property was destroyed by the war. In addition to 
this, many men were taken from 
useful business, trade was upset, 
and some lines of work were stopped 
entirely. 

The Northern States suffered little 
in comparison with the South. There 
for four years great armies swept to 
and fro like tornadoes. Food and 
other property were often destroyed 
to keep them from falling into the 
hands of others. Houses, bams, 
mills, factories, foundries, railroads, 
and bridges were burned or blown up. 

482. Hard times in the Confed- 
eracy. When the blockade began to 
shut in the Confederacy, and cut off outside products, 
there was a lack of many things. Manufactured goods 
of all kinds were scarce. The cotton factories were 
chiefly at the North, and even cotton cloth was hard to 
get. Women returned to the custom of earlier days, and 
spun and wove. Homespun clothes were often worn. 
Paper became scarcer and scarcer. Newspapers were 
printed on smaller sheets— -and, in emergencies, on 




lL"'J^'^iiz''MZt:^ 't- 



"^t^ w- 25'*' 



TWENTY f IVE CEB 



MONEY USED DURING THE 
CONFEDERACY 



374 



The War Between the States 



wallpaper. Coffee became a great luxury, and many 
substitutes were tried. 

The blockade also kept the South from shipping its 
cotton, tobacco, and rice. Year by year the country 
grew poorer. Silver and gold almost disappeared. The 
Confederate government, as well as the States, issued 
paper money. But as there was little gold and silver 








r -xlB-Xin '"' 2111 ^M Mil I 



' ''; , ■ "■"■*' ' '^-' 

A SOl^THEKN PLANTER'S DESERTED HOME 



From a photograph 



to redeem it, the value of the paper money became steadily 
less. Toward the end of the war it was practically 
worthless. The farmers paid their taxes, not with this 
paper money, which was useless to the government, but 
with the products of their plantations. 

483. The southern planter. No person lost more by 
the war than the southern planter. He rode away to 
battle full of hope. He returned to face poverty and 
trouble. His field laborers and his house servants had 
been set free. His plantation had gone to ruin. If the 
buildings and tools had escaped destruction, they were 
sadly out of repair. His cows and hogs had been used 
to feed the army. Horses and mules were gone. The 
money that he had was worthless. He could not get as 
much for the goods he had to sell as formerly. He had 



Facts About the War 375 

been a man of position and power. Now things had all 
changed, and he must start over from the bottom. 

484. War times in the North. The North did not suffer 
so much. There were recruiting camps in nearly every 
neighborhood. Mothers and sisters wept as the men 
marched away with colors flying and drums beating. 
After great battles, excited groups gathered to hear the 
news and read the list of dead and wounded. From time 
to time the dead were brought home to be buried with 
military honors. Crippled and wounded soldiers soon 
appeared in large numbers to remind the people of the 
awful contest. Heavier taxes and the drafting of men 
also brought the war home. In these ways the North 
felt the effects of the war. 

But only once or twice did the North know what it 
meant to have invading armies on its soil. Business 
continued to be good. The old trade with the South 
was gone, but the government needed food, clothing, and 
war material for the army. Wages rose. The farmer 
got high prices for what he raised. The manufacturer 
was protected by a war tariff and prospered. He suffered 
from no such blockade as the one which almost put an 
end to business in the South. 

485. A new national banking system. Since the time 
of Andrew Jackson the banking business of the country 
had been done by State banks (§330). They issued paper 
money. Some of it was good, and some bad. During 
the war Congress passed an act which gave a new system 
of banks, and a new kind of paper money that did not 
vary in value. Salmon P. Chase, Secretary of the 
Treasury, suggested this plan. Each of these banks had 
to buy and keep a certain amount of national bonds. 
Then it could issue paper money equal to 90 per cent 



376 The War Between the States 

of these bonds. The bonds were good as long as the 
government lasted, and were a security for the paper 
money. People therefore knew that it was good, and no 
one questioned its value. State banks were next taxed so 
heavily if they issued paper money, that they ceased to 
do so, and the national bank notes became the only ones. 
All new banks which were established had to buy govern- 
ment bonds equal to at least a third of their capital. 
These were deposited in the National Treasury. 

486. Paying for the war. War is a costly business, 
and Congress had to raise a vast amount of money to 
pay the bills. It did this in three ways: 

1. It increased taxes. This was done by raising the 
tariff, by new taxes on land and on incomes over $800, 
and by an internal revenue system that touched nearly 
everything. Men were now taxed on what they had, 
what they did, what they ate or drank, and on what 
they wore. At every turn they realized that they were 
helping to pay the bills. 

2. It issued bonds. When the war was well under way, 
it cost nearly $2,000,000 a day. To pay this, taxes were 
not enough. It was necessary to borrow. When the 
government did this it gave its promise to pay back 
after so many years, with interest, usually at six or seven 
per cent. This is a "bond." In this way more than 
$1,000,000,000 was borrowed. 12^ 

J. It issued paper money. Even the bonds did not 
bring in all the money needed, and Congress issued 
paper money. Each of- these notes was, of course, a 
paper promise to pay so much gold or silver. Some of 
them were green on the back, and were therefore known 
as "greenbacks." This paper money was entirely dis- 
tinct from the notes issued by the national banks. 



Period of Consolidation and Expansion 

RECONSTRUCTION IN THE SOUTH 

THE PLANS OF LINCOLN AND JOHNSON 

487. Were the Southern States now in the Union? 

Lincoln had said in his first inaugural address: "No 
State can lawfully get out of the Union." The Southern 
States believed they had the right to do so. They had 
made the attempt, and had been defeated. What was 
now their relation to the Union? 

Were they still in it, or were they back in it? Or 
were they perhaps in some new relation to it like con- 
quered territory? 

488. Lincoln's plan. There was much discussion of 
these questions. But Lincoln said that the great thing 
to do was to get the Southern States back into working 
connection with the rest of the nation. By the end of 
1863 some portions of the Confederacy were in the hands 
of the Union armies. Lincoln determined not to wait 
longer. He issued a "Proclamation of Amnesty." This 
offered pardon to all persons, with some exceptions, who 
would take an oath "to support, protect, and defend the 
Constitution of the United States" and all acts of Con- 
gress and the Emancipation Proclamation. When those 
taking this oath in any State were not less than one tenth 
of the number who had voted before the war, they might 
set up a government and act as a State once more. 

In Louisiana, Tennessee, and Arkansas Lincoln's plan 
was tried. But Congress refused to receive their mem- 
bers, or to count their electoral votes. It sent to the 

377 



378 



Reconstrtiction in the South 




President its own plan for reconstructing the South. 

Lincoln did not agree to it; and when the subject came 

up again, he was dead. 
489. Johnson's plan. An- 
drew Johnson, who was vice- 
president, now succeeded 
Lincoln. He had been a 
Senator from Tennessee, had 
opposed secession, and had 
been military governor of 
that State. What would be 
^ his policy toward the South ? 
At first he seemed inclined 
to be severe; but finally he 
followed in Lincoln's foot- 
steps, although he restricted 

From a photograph takea in 1865, by A. Gardner TTIOre ClOSClv the off er of 
ANDREW JOHNSON 

pardon. 

He pushed forward rapidly the work of reconstruction 
during the summer and fall of 1865, while Congress was 
not in session. The blockade was removed from the 
southern ports, and they were once more open to the 
trade of the world. He appointed temporary governors 
for the Southern States. Under their direction conven- 
tions were held, and State governments were set up. 
These States now repealed their acts of secession, recog- 
nized the freedom of the negroes, and declared that they 
would not pay any debts that had come from supporting 
the Confederacy. 

490. The Thirteenth Amendment. Step by step slav- 
ery was disappearing. But in some border States it 
still existed (§454), and there was a vague fear that it 
might possibly be restored somewhere. To make sure of 



The Plans of Lincoln mid Johnson 379 

its complete removal an amendment to the Constitu- 
tion was proposed. Amid exciting scenes, it passed 
Congress (January 31, 1865). It was accepted by the 
States, and declared in effect on December 18, 1865. 
(Constitution, Amendments, Art. XIII). 

491. The negro in the South. The situation in the 
South was a new and difficult one. Four million slaves 
had been set free. They were without education, and 
had little or no experience in caring for themselves, or 
in the duties of citizenship. The southern people natu- 
rally feared that without control they would become idle 
and dangerous. 

Several southern legislatures, therefore, passed special 
laws to prevent this. If the negroes refused to work at 
customary wages, they could be declared vagrants, or 
idlers, and fined. If the fines could not be paid, the 
judge could sentence them to work for some white man. 
Children could be "bound out" to labor until a certain 
age was reached. These laws were intended to prevent 
idleness and disorder. But in the North many thought 
they interfered with the freedom of the negroes, and 
insisted that something be done to protect them. 

492. Congress takes a hand. When Congress met, it 
decided to take a hand itself in southern affairs. The 
Freedmen's Bureau had been established toward the end 
of the war to help the negro get a start in his new life. 
Congress now enlarged its power so that it might inter- 
fere to protect him whenever it thought his rights were 
interfered with. It then passed the Civil Rights Bill. 
This declared the negro a citizen of the United States, 
with the privilege of using the national courts. President 
Johnson fought both of these measures hotly, but they 
were passed over his veto. 



3^0 Reconstruction in the South 

In June, 1866, the Fourteenth Amendment was passed 
and submitted to the States (Constitution, Amend- 
ments, Art. XIV). The purpose of this was to secure 
to the negro his civil rights, as the Thirteenth had secured 
to him freedom. It also tried indirectly to get the vote 
for him by cutting down the representation in Congress 
of any State that did not let him vote. Tennessee 
promptly ratified it, and her members were admitted to 
Congress. It was two years before enough States ap- 
proved it to make it a part of the Constitution. 

RECONSTRUCTION BY CONGRESS 

493. The congressional plan. The President and 
Congress were now open enemies. In public speeches 
in various cities Johnson denounced Congress and its 
plans for dealing with the South. His opponents in 
Congress were led by Thaddeus Stevens, a bitter and 
uncompromising man. . 

The elections in 1866 gave Johnson's opponents a 
large majority in Congress. They proceeded to tie his 
hands. They passed the Tenure of Office Act, which 
forbade him to remove any man from office without 
the consent of the Senate. They gave General Grant 
control over the army in order that the President might 
not withdraw the soldiers from the South. 

Congress itself then undertook the work of recon- 
struction. 

The South, except Tennessee (§430), was divided into 
five military districts, with an army officer in charge of 
each. A convention in each State was to make a con- 
stitution giving the vote to negroes as well as to white 
men. A State government would then be set up, and 
the Fourteenth Amendment ratified. If now everything 



Reconstruction by Congress 



381 




were satisfactory to Congress, the State would be restored 
to its place in the Union. Until this took place, the 
State would remain under 
military rule. 

By June, 1868, North and 
South Carolina, Arkansas, Ala- 
bama, Florida, and Louisiana 
met the conditions and were 
admitted by Congress. By 
1 87 1 the other four southern 
States had also been admitted 
after accepting the Fifteenth 
Amendment also (§500). 

494. The impeachment of 
President Johnson. The quar- 
rel between Congress and the 
President grew more and more 
bitter. Johnson believed that 

the Secretary of War, Stanton, was taking the side of 
Congress, and removed him from office. Congress 
claimed that in doing this Johnson violated the Tenure 
of Office Act (§493). It determined to impeach him, 
and brought against him charges of "high crimes and 
misdemeanors." 

The case was tried before the Senate, acting as jury, 
with the Chief Justice as presiding officer. For nearly 
two months the great trial continued. After all the 
testimony had been taken, and the noted lawyers had 
spoken for and against the President, thirty-five senators 
voted "Guilty," and nineteen "Not guilty" (Constitu- 
tion, Art. I, §3, ^ 6-7). This was one vote less 
than the two thirds necessary for conviction, and 
the impeachment failed. 



From a photograph taken 
by Chftrlea W. Eberman 

THADDEUS STEVENS 



382 Reconstruction in the South 

495. Grant elected president. The campaign of 186S 
was exciting. The issue between the parties had grown 
mostly out of the war, and out of the struggle between 
Johnson and Congress. 

The Republicans favored the plan of reconstruction 
offered by Congress, and nominated General Grant and 
Schuyler Colfax. The Democrats called for the com- 
plete pardon of all who had taken part in the war, and a 
more liberal policy toward, the South. They nominated 
Horatio Seymour and Frank P. Blair. 

Grant was elected by a large majority. 

496. Carpetbaggers and Scalawags. Many of the 
southern States fell into the hands of ignorant negro 
voters, led by northern adventurers called "Carpet- 
baggers." The name was given in contempt because it 
was said they carried all their property in carpetbags. 
Sometimes they were aided by southern adventurers, who 
were called "Scalawags." The carpetbaggers had hur- 
ried south to become rich by persuading the negroes to 
elect them to office. They told their ignorant followers 
the southern white men wished to put them back in sla- 
very, and their only hope was to vote for Republicans. 

497. Negro rule in the South. In many of the recon- 
structed southern States a majority of the members of 
the legislature were at one time negroes. They were a 
strange body of men to make laws for States at a time 
when there was need for the greatest wisdom. A few 
were intelligent because they had been trusted "family 
servants"; but most of them were ignorant, having 
spent their lives in cotton or rice fields. Some were well 
dressed, but many wore second-hand clothes, glossy and 
threadbare. A few were clad in the coarse dress of field 
hands. All were ignorant of public business. 



Reconstruction by Congress 383 

How changed the scei;e to the old planter who, in the 
same halls, had heard the voices of Hayne and Calhoun, 
or of Toombs and Stephens! Now, if a white member 
rose to speak, he must address a former slave sitting in 
the speaker's chair. If he offered a resolution, he must 
hear it read to the legislature by the negro clerk. If he 
served on an important committee, its chairman and a 
majority of its members were negroes. 

While the legislature was debating a bill to raise or 
to spend money, the greatest excitement would occur. 
Though the speaker pounded his desk to keep order, 
many persons would be on their feet trying to speak at 
the same time. The noise of loud talking, and even 
laughing, went right on. Some members leaned back 
with their feet on the desks, smoking cigars or eating 
peanuts, while those who were to profit by the bill were 
busy trying to buy votes for it. 

498. Results of negro and carpetbagger rule. These 
days of ignorant and corrupt rule left their mark on 
southern life long after they were over. The results were : 

1. Millions of dollars were wasted and millions were 
stolen. The states were burdened with debt at the very 
time when all their resources were needed to rebuild their 
industries and educate their people. 

2. The taste of public life gave the negro a false ideal. 
Just now all of his energies should have been turned to 
the practice of industry, thrift, and self-control, so as 
to fit himself for the everyday duties of his new life. 
Instead of this, he was drawn into politics, and leaned 
on the government to help him. 

3. The negro and the white man were brought into 
opposition. Then came friction between the races and 
a distrust that lasted for years. 



384 



Reconstruction in thp South 



499. The Ku-Klux Klan. So dreadful did this negro 
and carpetbagger rule become at times, that many 




|i(lllli!|l!lll!l*itl|iAlliiii)i^^ 



THE KU-KLUX KLAN MAKES A CALL 



methods were used to meet it. Among them were the 
midnight raids of the Ku-Klux Klan. This was a secret 
society that arose in Tennessee, and spread over the 
South. The movements of the Klan were mysterious. 
At dead of night, loud knocks would be heard at the 
door of a negro cabin, and terrible visitors, wrapped like 
ghosts in winding sheets, would appear before the eyes 
of the frightened blacks. They seemed to the super- 
stitious negroes to be the spirits of the dead Confederates, 
returning to avenge their unhappy fate. If the bolder 
negroes and their white leaders gave no heed to the 
warnings of the Ku-Klux, they were whipped, driven 
away, and in some instances murdered. This violence 
aroused great indignation in the North, and led to 
measures to put an end to the Ku-Klux. 



Foreign Relations 385 

500. Protecting the negro. The last of the three great 
amendments passed soon after the war was the Fifteenth. 
This declared that the right to vote should not be taken 
from any citizen "on account of race, color, or previous 
condition of servitude." It passed Congress in 1869, 
becoming a part of the Constitution in 1870. (Constitu- 
tion, Amendment XV.) 

Congress against strong opposition passed the Force 
Bill (1870). The purpose of this measure was to fine 
and imprison those who kept the negro from voting or 
his vote from being counted. On account of disturb- 
ances President Grant sent troops to enforce the law. 
Of course this action only made more bitter the feeling 
between the two sections. 

Better feeling followed the passage of an Amnesty Act 
(1872). This law granted the right of voting and holding 
office to a larger number of ex-Confederates. 

NEW QUESTIONS BEFORE THE PEOPLE 

FOREIGN RELATIONS 

501. Violation of the Monroe Doctrine (§319). 
Napoleon IIP-^ taking advantage of the war between 
the North and South, sent an army into Mexico, and 
put Maximilian on the throne. At the end of the Civil 
War, General Sheridan, with a veteran army, was sent 
to the Texan border. Then the French troops were 
withdrawn from Mexico, the Mexicans rose in rebellion, 
and Maximilian was dethroned and shot. Mexico was 
again a republic. 

502. Monroe Doctrine strengthened (1867). Secre- 
tary Seward purchased Alaska from Russia for $7,200,000, 
thus removing one more European nation from the Ameri- 
can continent (§319). Although Alaska was almost as 



386 New Questions Before the People 

large as the thirteen original States, many people believed 
too much had been paid for it. They thought of it as 







., ... "\^ 

ASIA 



-^^^^.r^,^^ .,M.f^./^ t.,9^A\ M^;;;.^ ^^ 

/' " PhibilokIs. • BfisC' -/ JVf KmiiAK I. ^»c^ 






V " '• £ a T . A t» '^^"■■' ° 'pacific OCEAN 



THE ALASKA PURCHASE OF 1 86? 

a barren land of ice and snow, and called it "Seward's 
Folly" and "Seward's Icebox." 

503. The Geneva award (1872). A happy way of 
settling disputes between nations is arbitration. Con- 
federate privateers had been fitted out in English ship 
yards (§470). They had destroyed millions of dollars' 
worth of property at sea. The United States demanded 
payment for this property. England refused. Then the 
two nations agreed to submit the question to arbitration. 
The board of arbitration met at Geneva, Switzerland. 
It consisted of an American, and an Englishman, and a 
man from Switzerland, one from Italy, and one from 
Brazil. This board decided that England should pay 
the United States $15,000,000 damages. 

OLD PARTIES DIVIDE AND NEW ONES ARISE 

504. Campaign of 1872. The Amnesty Act (§500) 
produced a more kindly feeling between sections. This 



Old Parties Divide and New Ones Arise 387 

feeling gave rise to the "Liberal Republicans," who 
nominated Horace Greeley for president. The Demo- 
cratic convention also nominated Greeley. This caused 
the party to split and those who opposed Greeley nomi- 
nated their own candidate. The regular Republicans 
renamed Grant. 

The Labor party made its first presidential campaign 
in 1872. Its platform stood for paper money, an eight- 
hour day law for labor, and for keeping Chinese out of 
the country. 

The Prohibition party also nominated a presidential 
candidate for the first time. 

In spite of many candidates the struggle in 1872 
really narrowed down to Grant and Greeley. Perhaps 
the most interesting person in this political battle was 
Horace Greeley, founder and editor of the New York 
Tribune, whose nomination had divided both the old 
parties. He had been an anti-slavery Whig, a Repub- 
lican in favor of the abolition of slavery even before 
Lincoln, had signed the bail bond of Jefferson Davis, 
and he was now the candidate of the party he had so 
long opposed. 

Greeley visited several States, addressed thousands of 
people, and aroused great enthusiasm. But the election 
was an overwhelming defeat. He carried only six States. 
The rejoicing of the victors was hardly over before the 
great editor, broken by overwork and by family sorrow, 
was in his grave. 

505. Money conditions (1872-1873). A great financial 
panic struck the country at the opening of Grant's 
second term as president. There had been financial 
panics before (§330) but this was the worst. Railroads 
had been built faster than the people needed them. 



388 New Questions Before the People 

Factories had made more goods than they could sell. 
We bought more goods from Europe than we sold there. 
The money laws of the country had been outgrown. The 
people became uneasy about money conditions, banks 
refused to make loans, and the panic had come. 

506. The great panic of 1873. When the rich firm of 
Jay Cooke & Company failed, exciting scenes took place 
in New York City. Crowds of shouting people filled 
the sidewalks in the neighborhood of Wall Street. They 
swarmed into the basement of the building occupied by 
the doomed firm, climbed over the railings, and even 
pushed their way into the offices. Policemen and detec- 
tives had to be called to protect the firm. 

The excitement spread and the whole country took 
alarm. "Runs" on banks occurred everywhere, but 
this only made matters worse. Over 10,000 business 
houses failed in 1873 and 1874. But the greatest loss 
and the greatest suffering were borne by the millions 
of wage-earners who either were thrown out of work or 
had their wages cut down (§330). 

507. The House of Representatives becomes Demo- 
cratic. For the first time since the war of 1861 the 
Democrats won the House. The people blamed the 
Republicans for the hard times. They had refused to 
improve the money laws. Congress raised the salaries 
of its members from $5,000 to $7,500 per year. This 
increase was called the "salary grab." Many people in 
the North had grown tired of hearing about the "carpet- 
bag" governments and the use of troops to support 
them. The result was an overwhelming victory for the 
Democrats. 

508. The specie payment law (1875). Since the 
panic of 1873, the country had been divided on the money 



Old Parties Divide and New Ones Arise 



389 




From a photograph by Pach Bros. 
RUTHERFORD B. HAYES 



question. Congress tried its 

hand at solving the question: 

It decided that persons having 

greenbacks (§486), a kind of 

paper money, might carry them 

to the treasury and receive 

gold or silver for them. But 

people were not anxious to do 

this, because greenbacks, by 

this law, became as "good 

as gold." 

509. The campaign of 1876. 

The Prohibition and the Green- 
back parties were the first in 

the field. The Republicans nominated Rutherford B. 

Hayes and the Democrats Samuel J. Tilden. Hayes had 

been three times elected governor of Ohio. Tilden had 

been governor of New York and had won fame in 

punishing the "Tweed Ring," a notorious band of 

corrupt New York politicians. 
The campaign was an excit- 
ing one. The Democrats for 
the first time since 1856 had 
a good chance to win the 
presidency. The result of the 
election remained long in 
doubt. Feeling ran high. To 
decide on the election returns of 
three States — South Carolina, 
Florida, and Louisiana — Con- 
gress appointed the Electoral 
Commission. This board con- 
sisted of eight Republicans and 




From a photograph by Sarony 
SAMUEL J. TILDEN 



15 



390 



New Questions Before the People 




ELECTION EXCITEMENT IN NEW YORK CITY IN 1876 



seven Democrats. It decided in favor of Hayes by a 
party vote of eight to seven. The Democrats were far 

from satisfied, but 
there was no use in 
protesting against 
the decision of 
the Commission. 
Washington had 
warned his coun- 
trymen against 
such a show of 
party spirit 
(§267). Since 
then laws have 
been made to prevent a return of such a situation. 

510. Fall of the carpetbag governments. President 
Hayes surprised both parties when he removed the troops 
from the vSouthern States. The carpetbag governments 
could not stand without the support of soldiers. The 
southern people began to govern themselves, and a 
kindlier feeling between the two sections arose. Indeed, 
this Republican president had done the very thing the 
Democrats had been hoping for. 

511. The Bland Law (1878). Congress passed the 
Bland Act over the veto of President Hayes. This act 
required the treasury department to coin into money 
each month not less than 2,000,000 nor more than 
4,000,000 silver dollars. The silver dollar was made a 
legal tender and in the United States would buy as much 
as a gold dollar. The actual value of the silver in a silver 
dollar, however, was less than the gold in a gold dollar. 
From now on the credit of the nation was better than 
ever before. 



Old Parties Divide and New Ones Arise 



391 




After a photograph by E. Bieratadt 
JAMES A. GARFIELD 



512. The election of 1880. 

The Republican opponents 
of President Hayes tried to 
nominate General Grant for 
a "third term." But public 
opinion stood too firmly by 
the custom formed by Wash- 
ington and Jefferson (§267). 
The convention in Chicago, 
therefore, named General 
James A. Garfield on a plat- 
form demanding civil service 
reform and the suppression 
of polygamy. The Prohi- 
bitionists nominated General 
Neal Dow of Maine, and the Greenback party named 
General James B. Weaver of Iowa. General Winfield 
Scott Hancock, 1-5 one of the heroes of Gettysburg, was 

presented to the people by 
the Democrats, on a plat- 
form calling for "honest 
money" and a "tariff for 
revenue only. ' ' The Repub- 
licans won. 

513. Garfield's assassina- 
tion. The new president was 
a good and noble man. 
When he was inaugurated 
he tried to check the abuse 
of putting men in office just 
because politicians wanted 
them. Public opinion stood 
behind him, but office 




From a photograph by Sarony 
CHESTER A. ARTHUR 



392 



New Questions Before the People 



- ^ v.-?'. 






U^ 








From a photograph by Brady 
JAMES G. BLAINE 



seekers were sorely disappointed. One of them, prob- 
ably half crazy, shot him, as he was taking the train to 

his old college town to celebrate 
the Fourth of July. Garfield 
died and was succeeded by Vice- 
President Arthur. 

514. Civil service reform 
(1883). Chester A. Arthur also 
disappointed the office seekers, 
for he signed the new bill intro- 
duced by a Democratic senator, 
Pendleton of Ohio. This bill pro- 
vided that the president appoint 
Civil Service Commissioners to 
examine persons applying for 
office. Men now began to get 
office, not because they were Dem- 
ocrats or Republicans, but because they were fitted for it. 
Every president since Arthur has added to the Civil Serv- 
ice until now most of the offices are filled by examination. 
515. A Democratic victory (1884). In making the 
campaign for president the Republicans offered James G. 
Blaine of Maine, three times speaker of the House; the 
Prohibitionists, St. John of Kansas; and the Greenbackers, 
Butler of Massachusetts. 

The Democrats named Grover Cleveland, once mayor 
of Buffalo and later governor of New York, for president. 
The arguments of the two parties centered around 
civil service reform and the tariff. Bitter charges were 
made against both Blaine and Cleveland. A large 
number of Republicans voted for St. John, and Inde- 
pendent Republicans, called "Mugwumps," supported 
Cleveland. He was elected. The Democrats rejoiced 



Old Parties Divide and New Ones Arise 



393 



all over the country, for it was the first Democratic 
victory in a presidential election since 1856. 

516. Legislation under Cleveland. The House was 
Democratic, but the Senate was Republican. Hence 
the making of laws was difficult. Yet the following acts 
were passed: (i) When neither president nor vice- 
president can serve it was arranged that the secretary of 
state was to act as president. Other cabinet officers in 
order of the creation of the office were to succeed him.^'** 
(2) An Interstate Commerce Commission was established 
to regulate passenger and freight rates of railroads 
running from one State to another, (j) To prevent 
disputes over presidential elections, Congress declared 
that the State should decide which way its electoral vote 
should be counted. (4) Public opinion had been demand- 
ing a law against cheap labor 
brought from Europe under con- 
tract. Congress passed such 
a law (1885). In answer to 
demands from California and 
other northwestern States Con- 
gress had already passed a law 
(1882) keeping out Chinese labor 
for ten years. Now it declared 
that when a Chinaman had 
once left the United States he 
could not return. 

517. Idle money and the 
Mills Bill. The high tariff piled 
up more money in the United 
States Treasury than the government could use. The 
people differed about it. Republicans said we should 
use it for pensions and for public works. Cleveland 




From a photograph by Bell 
GROVER CLEVELAND 



394 



New Questions Before the People 




urged Congress to pass a "tariff for revenue only." 
Congressman Mills, of Texas, introduced a bill for 

this purpose. The Democratic 
House passed it but it was re- 
jected by the Republican Senate. 
The question of the tariff was left 
for debate in the next campaign. 
518. The election of Benjamin 
Harrison (1888). The Demo- 
crats renominated Cleveland and 
named Thurman of Ohio, an 
old-time Democrat, for the vice- 
presidency. The Republicans 
put up Benjamin Harrison, sen- 
ator from Indiana, and Levi P. 
Morton of New York. The 
From a photograph by L. Aiman Pfohibitionist and Labor parties 

BENJAMIN HARRISON ^ ,. , 

also presented candidates. 

Cleveland lost the support of some Democrats because 
he had not turned out enough Republicans, and some 
civil service reformers because he had turned out too 
many. Democratic Union veterans refused to stand by 
him because he vetoed too many pension bills. But the 
great issue was the tariff (§517). 

Republicans went into the campaign enthusiastic and 
united. They repeated in a way the campaign of 1840, 
because their candidate was the grandson of President 
William Henry Harrison (§332). Harrison won by a 
majority of the electoral yotes, but Cleveland carried the 
popular vote by more than 100,000. (Constitution, 
Amendment XH.) 

519. Republican legislation. The RepubHcans were 
now in power in all branches of the government. This 



Old Parties Divide and New Ones Arise 395 

fact led them to pass a high tariff act, called the McKinley 
Bill. The President, however, was given power to make 
"reciprocity agreements" with other nations. If two 
or more nations reduce the tariff on each other's goods, 
this is called reciprocity. This was a move toward a 
lower tariff. 

Stirred by Cleveland's vetoes (§517) Congress also 
passed a new pension law largely increasing the number 
of Union soldiers receiving pensions. Some congress- 
men wanted the government to buy more silver. So Con- 
gress agreed to purchase 4,500,000 ounces of silver each 
month, keep it in the Treasury, and send out paper 
money called silver certificates instead. This act was 
called the Sherman Law. 

This legislation did not please the people, and at the 
very first election (1890) the Democrats carried Repub- 
lican States and sent a majority of 135 to the House. 
In this year a new party, called the People's, showed 
what it could do. 

520. The People's party. For a long time the farmers 
had been getting low prices. The government had not 
done much for them and large numbers had joined the 
Greenback party (§509). For many years they had been 
uniting in "granges" and "alliances" for social and 
business reasons. They finally formed the Farmers' 
Alliance and Industrial Union at St. Louis (1889) to see 
what could be done in politics. Later (1891) certain 
Alliance leaders united with the Labor leaders to form 
the People's party. 

521. Cleveland elected again. This new People's 
party was the first in the arena. It demanded the free 
coinage of silver, an income tax, the ownership of rail- 
roads and telegraph lines. It further called for the 



396 New Questions Before the People 

lending of money at 2 per cent by the government on 
certain farm products. It also demanded that the 
government, not the banks, should issue money. On 
this platform it nominated James B. Weaver of Iowa and 
James C. Field of Virginia. 

The Democrats, after a hard fight, gave Cleveland the 
nomination for a third time and put Adlai E. Stevenson 
of IlHnois on the ticket with him. The Republicans 
renominated Benjamin Harrison and put Whitelaw Reid 
of the New York Tribune on the ticket. The Democrats 
elected the president and both Houses of Congress for the 
first time since 1856. 

522. The panic of 1893. No sooner had Cleveland 
taken his seat than a great panic swept the country. 
Thousands of banks, business houses, and persons could 
not pay their debts and many thousands of people were 
thrown out of work or had their wages reduced. Men 
wanted bread, the number of tramps increased, and 
Coxey's army^''^ started for Washington to compel Con- 
gress to give relief. 

Some thought that the trouble was due to the high 
tariff (§517); others to the fear that it would be lowered. 
Some said that there was too little money in circulation; 
others were afraid there was more paper money than 
could be kept at its full value. The Democrats blamed 
the Republicans, the Republicans blamed the Democrats, 
and the People's party blamed both. 

523. The Sherman Law repealed. President Cleve- 
land felt certain that the Sherman Law was now a danger. 
He believed that unless it were repealed our money 
would lose some of its value. He therefore called Con- 
gress together and laid the matter before them. After 
great and earnest debates the law was repealed. Many 



Old Parties Divide and New Ones Arise 397 

Democrats and Republicans as well as the People's party 
opposed the repeal. The result was a split in both the 

old parties. 

524. The Wilson Tariff Bill. Cleveland had earnestly 
urged a lowering of the tariff. The Democrats had prom- 
ised it and hoped that it would bring better times. 
Therefore Wilson, a Democratic leader from West Vir- 
ginia, introduced a bill reducing the tariff on many 
things. But it was so changed in the Senate that it 
was a bitter disappointment to many. 

525. Foreign relations. The government of Hawaii 
was overthrown (1893) by the aid of American sailors. 



/^ )Kauai I 




.,?> 



^O* ^(V^•^'' Kai O KaloM^^^l^^p.^ 

lanai i\3w-?^''^§j>m:aui I. 

KAKOOLAIVE l.C^ c'''"'nlci C' 




cfl statute Miles to one inch 

Railways — 

Steamship lines _ 
Lava flows „..:„.- 




HAWAII I. 

'I.Kapobo 



THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 

President Cleveland refused to accept a treaty for the 
annexation of Hawaii. 

The United States and Great Britain settled by a 

Court of Arbitration (1893) a dispute about catching seals 

n Bering Sea. The Court decided against the United 



398 



New Questions before the People 




From a photograph by Courtney 
WILLIAM MCKINLEY 



States, but this way of settling 
disputes was a victory for peace 
over war (§ 503). 

526. The campaign of 1896. 
We have seen the attitude of the 
silver men on the money question 
(§520). When the Republicans 
named William McKinley for 
president and declared against 
the free coinage of silver, thirty- 
four delegates from the silver 
States left the convention and 
later put up a silver man for 
president. 

The Democrats nominated 
William Jennings Bryan and declared for the free coinage 
of silver. Immediately the gold men in the party nomi- 
nated a man of their own. The People's party endorsed 
Bryan, but the Prohibition- 
ists split on the money ques- 
tion and had two candidates. 
The Socialists alone stood by 
their candidate. 

This was probably the most 
bitter campaign since war 
times. Bryan won his nomi- 
nation by a great speech in 
the convention. He traveled 
18,000 miles, made 600 
speeches, and was heard by 
5,000,000 persons. McKinley 
was elected. His popular ma- 

From a photograph by Baker 

jority was more than 500,000. william j. bryan 




How Americans View Education 



399 



THE GROWTH OF SCHOOLS 



HOW AMERICANS VIEW EDUCATION 

527. How education influences a republic. Daniel 

Webster said, long ago, that ' ' on the diffusion of education 
among the people rest the preservation and perpetuation 
of our institutions." The 
American people believe that 
education is not only neces- 
sary to good government but 
that it helps them to be more 
industrious and to keep out 
of mischief. ^-^ 

528. National aid to edu- 
cation. When our Consti- 
tution was m.ade (1787) 
education was left to the 
States. But from time to 
time Congress has given aid 
to education. It first granted 
to the States land to help 
them support agricultural 
colleges (1862). But in 1890 
Congress passed an act giving these colleges money every 
year. It went further and granted money for extending 
the work among the people (19 14). Once more Congress 
(191 7), under the influence of President Wilson, showed 
its generosity by granting money for vocational training. 

Long ago Congress established a Bureau of Education 
(1867) to collect and publish facts pertaining to education 
and to schools. This Bureau is constantly widening its 
influence in the work of overlooking the educational 
situation. 




From a photograph by Purdy 

WILLIAM T. HARRIS 

United States Commissioner of Education 
from i88g to igo6 



400 



The Growth of Schools 



SOUTHERN SCHOOLS 

529. The hard task of the South. Before the war for 
secession the Southern States had begun their pubUc 
school systems. But the war stopped their growth. 
When, after its close, the South took up the problem of 
educating her children she found a terrible condition of 
things. New school houses had to be built, the school 
terms had to be made longer, teachers had to be made 
better, and their pay had to increase. This took 
money. But because of the destruction wrought by 







From a photograph 
THE HOME ECONOMICS BUILDING, GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, 
NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE 

war and of the greater waste of the "carpetbag" gov- 
ernments, the South had little money. Then, too, the 
children of the negro had to go to school, although the 
negro had but little property for school taxes. Hence 
education in the South was a double hardship for the 
white people. 

530. Rapid improvement in southern schools. To- 
ward the close of the century southern schools were rapidly 
forging to the front. Educational campaigns had been 
carried on in many States for the improvement of schools, 
and the better preparation and pay of teachers. State 



Schools of the Nation 



401 



normal schools had been established for the better training 
of teachers, and at Nashville was founded the great Pea- 
body Normal College for the 
higher education of teachers. 
In addition to the public 
schools, special institutions 
have been established at Hamp- 
ton, at Tuskegee, and elsewhere 
to train negroes. The census of 
1900 showed that one half the 
negroes could read and write. 
531. Friends come to the 
help of education. Every 
southern State has now its 
own State university and many 
technical and agricultural 
schools or both. Many 
churches in the nation have 
established all sorts of schools in the South, especially 
higher schools, to aid in the education of all classes of 
young people. Wealthy men have given large sums for 
education. The first was George Peabody.^^g the philan- 
thropist (1866), who founded Peabody Normal College. 
Johns Hopkins left $3,500,000 to found the Johns 
Hopkins University in Baltimore. This was opened in 
1876 and has had a steady influence on other colleges 
and universities in America. 




From a lithograph by D. C. Fabronius 
GEORGE PEABODY 



SCHOOLS OF THE NATION 

532. The elementary schools. Since the war between 
the North and South the public schools all over the 
country have made great strides forward. In every 
state, city, and town, and in the county, taxes are raised 



402 



The Growth of Schools 



to carry on the work of educating our boys and girls. 
Normal schools have been established, and in 1890 
30,000 students were being trained in them. In 191 7 
normal-school education cost the country $20,000,000. 
In many city systems night schools have been established 
for both young and old who have missed the chance of 
getting an education. 

Not many public high schools 
Gradually they have taken the 



533. High schools. 

existed before the war. 




LAUORATORY IN A TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL 

place of the old seminaries or academies and private 
schools and now bid fair to become the "people's col- 
leges." The rural high school has been given new life 
by sending the children in' wagons to school centers. In 
our day the high school is changing. It is taking on 
studies that once belonged to special schools, such as 
business, commerce, agriculture, and the mechanic and 
domestic arts. The old school studied only books, the 



Other Means of Education 403 

new school studies books and things. The student now 
spends part of his time in the laboratory. 

534. Changes in colleges and universities. Since the 
war, the highest schools of learning have changed greatly. 
Once they were all men's colleges and universities. Now 
women can enter most of them. Once everybody studied 
Greek, Latin, and mathematics, while now they may 
choose what they wish to study. Now the university 
offers almost any subject. Not only have these changes 
revolutionized the college and the university, but also the 
university is carrying its courses to the people. This is 
a sort of university extension work, and makes the higher 
schools as democratic as the lower schools. In 191 7 the 
people of the United States spent $120,000,000 on its 
colleges and universities. 

OTHER MEANS OF EDUCATION 

535. Education after school days. We have already 
noticed night schools, but there are many other means of 
education after "school days" are over. The Young 
Men's and the Young Women's Christian Associations 
open their doors to all kinds of studies. The widening 
of the university courses is another appeal to mature 
people. The wide growth of the Chautauqua movement 
has now swept that institution into all parts of the coun- 
try. In some of our great cities, New York for example, 
the Board of Education carries on a course of lectures 
during a large part of the school year. The Summer 
School at Peabody Normal College, and the summer 
sessions of the universities, are schools for mature people. 

536. Education by world expositions. Almost every 
section of the country has had its exposition to celebrate 
some great event. The first one, carried on by the help 



404 



The Growth of Schools 



of the nation, was the Centennial at Philadelphia (1876), 
to honor the Declaration of Independence. Many- 
nations erected buildings and sent their products to fill 
them. Thousands of people came from all parts of the 
nation. The World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago 
(1893), celebrated Columbus' discovery of America. At 
the Centennial they saw the beginnings of the wonderful 
power of electricity, but at the Pan-American Exposition 
at Buffalo (1901) they beheld wonderful displays of its 
power and usefulness. 

The Cotton Centennial in celebration of the first bale 
of cotton sent to Europe was held in the fair city of New 
Orleans (1884). It showed the world what the South had 
done in the raising and manufacture of this product. 
The world received an invitation to Atlanta (1895) to 









"nrfv 



nf 



:;/>L 



-■'-'"'"iL^I 



From a photograph 
THE MANUFACTURES BUILDING AT THE WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION 

see the wonderful doings in all lines of work of the New 
South. Here was seen a "Woman's Building" for the 
first time in a world's fair. But the women of Tennessee, 
not to be outdone, reproduced Jackson's old home, the 
Hermitage, as their contribution to the one hundredth 



Other Means of Education 



405 
Union. 



anniversary of Tennessee's admission to the 
This exposition was held at Nashville (1896). 

In 1898 the Trans-Mississippi Exposition was held at 
Omaha to show the superiority of the States west of the 
great river in the products of field and mine. In 1902 







'SmSmiiMiiSiiitai^ 



^^'.''te^r 111 




1 — lPi:-~«r ffl-s^T^ 



From a photograph 
THE woman's building AT THE ATLANTA INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITION 

South Carolina at Charleston gave the world an invitation 
to see the Interstate and West Indian Exposition. Thou- 
sands visited the historic southern city to see how well 
she had recovered after the great earthquake, as well as 
to see the exposition. St. Louis in 1904 celebrated the 
centennial of the purchase of Louisiana with an exposi- 
tion that, in the number and splendor of its buildings, 
outranked any other fair yet held. The next year came 
an exposition at Portland, Oregon, in honor of the Lewis 
and Clark expedition to the Pacific. Here were seen also 
the products of the Philippines and of Asia. 

In two more years the nations of the world were invited 
to the ter-centennial of the founding of Jamestown, held 
near Norfolk, Virginia. They were not disappointed in 
the exhibits made by the different States. In 1915 



4o6 The Growth of Schools 

occurred at San Francisco the celebration of the comple- 
tion of the great Panama Canal. 

537- What these expositions mean. Our people learned 
much from these fairs. Here were shown the latest in- 
ventions of all the different nations. In addition many- 
nations exhibited historical, artistic, and fine art produc- 
tions. These things stimulated the American people to 
greater endeavor. Altogether several millions of people 
attended and drew inspiration from these exhibitions. 

GROWTH OF LITERATURE 

538. Popular publications. The enormous growth since 
the war of all sorts of newspapers, books, and magazines, 
is one of the wonders of our age. Daily newspapers from 
our great cities find readers, in large numbers, more than 
500 miles from the place of publication. The Saturday 
Evening Post is read in every town in our country. 
Weekly papers like the Literary Digest contain short 
articles or extracts on men and events which concern 
the whole nation. The monthly magazines such as the 
Review of Reviews and the World's Work contain more 
solid articles on current events, while the Atlantic 
Monthly and the Century hold to the more serious dis- 
cussion of literary, historical, and social subjects. Scien- 
tific, professional, and technical journals have increased 
almost beyond number. 

539. Men of science and history. Even before i860 
men of science were attracting attention. Among them 
were Audubon, who told us about American birds; Asa 
Gray, who classified our plants; Louis Agassiz, who 
taught men how to study animal life; and Matthew F. 
Maury, a Virginian, who made himself famous as a 
student of winds and currents. But since that day 



Growth of Literature 



407 




science has had a great revival and scores and scores of 
scientists have become famed for their discoveries. 

In this period (i 860-1 900) 
we are beginning to say good- 
by to George Bancroft, who 
wrote the first great history 
of the United States; WilHam 
H. Prescott, who told us the 
story of the doings of the 
Spaniards in Mexico and Peru ; 
and Francis Parkman, who 
told the story of the French 
in Canada in the most charm- 
ing manner. These men have 
given place to Henry Adams, 
John Fiske, James Ford 
Rhodes, Woodrow Wilson, 
and many other keen his- 
torians well trained in modern methods of research. 

540. Our later poets. So, too, in this period we are 
bidding goodby to our most beloved poets. Among 
them are William Cullen Bryant, Henry W. Long- 
fellow, John G. Whittier, and Edgar Allan Poe. These 
men are known wherever good poetry is loved and 
read (§386.) 

Eugene Field and James Whitcomb Riley have touched 
the hearts of thousands of young and old by their sweet 
songs, in these later days. 

Among southern poets who tuned their harps for us 
may be named James Ryder Randall (183 9-1 908). Born 
in Baltimore but living out most of his days in Georgia 
and Alabama, he sang himself into fame with that patri- 
otic lyric "Maryland! My Maryland!" Other stirring 



From a photograph 
MATTHEW F. MAURY 
All American hydrographer and naval 
officer 



4o8 



The Growth of Schools 



I 



war poems by Randall are: "There's Life in the Old 
Land Yet," "The Lone Sentry," "The Battle Cry of 
the South," and "At Arlington." 

Henry Timrod (1829-1867) and Paul Hamilton Hayne 
( 1 831-1886), two sweet singers of the South, were school- 
mates and were good friends until death separated them. 
Henry Timrod stirs the blood with his war poems, 
"Carohna" and "A Cry to Arms." Hayne was the 
successful editor of at least two literary publications. 
One of the most appealing of his "Sonnets" is ad- 
dressed to Henry W. Longfellow. 

Another southern poet was "Father Ryan," who 
sent forth that touching song, "The Sword of Robert 
Lee." But not least among those who sang of the 
Southland was a woman, Margaret J. Preston, the sister- 
in-law of that great soldier, Stonewall Jackson. As a 
poet she ranks among the very first women of her time. 

Among her poems are two beau- 
tiful tributes to Jackson: "The 
Shade of the Trees" and "Jack- 
son's Grave." Among southern 
poets the name of Sidney Lanier 
(i 842-1881), poet-musician, ranks 
highest. He is said to have been 
the greatest flute player in the 
world. In his poems he sings 
in the same sweet, mellow tones 
that flowed from his flute and 
"The Song of the Chattahoochee" 
is a notable example of the 
blending of music and poetry. 
541. Among the novelists and orators. The novel has 
become, in our day, the favorite way in which literary 




From a photograph ftfter a wash drawing 
SIDNEY LANIER 

Poel and critic 



Northern Industry Immediately after the War 409 



men express their thoughts. We may name as standing 
for the novel WilHam Dean Howells, Henry James, Charles 
Major, James Lane Allen, Win- 
ston Churchill. Many women 
have won fame in this field of 
writing. Among these are 
Edith Wharton, Mary Johnston, 
and Mary N. Murfree (Charles 
Egbert Craddock). 

The South has always been 
noted for its orators. But no 
one has so stirred the people 
since the war as Henry W. 
Grady of Georgia. His remark- 
able speech "The New South" 
was widely copied throughout 
the country. 

542. Short stories and humor. Here Americans have 
excelled. No finer stories have been written than those 
by Booth Tarkington, O. Henry, Thomas Nelson Page, 
and George W. Cable. Nor is more delightful fun to 
be found than in the songs and sayings of Joel 
Chandler Harris, and Mark Twain. 




From a photograph 
HENRY W. GRADY 

A successful journalist and orator 



INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 

NORTHERN INDUSTRY IMMEDIATELY AFTER THE WAR 

543. How the farmer got on. The war destroyed old 
industrial and social conditions in the South. But in the 
North, where marching armies did not come, the farmer 
got on well. His crops when once put in brought him 
great harvests. For everything he raised he received a 
good price. But men to help put in the crops were 
scarce. Thousands upon thousands of farmer boys had 



410 



Industrial Progress 



to go to war. Because of the big prices he received and 
because so many farm laborers were gone to war, the 

farmer began to call 
for machines to do 
his work.i^^ In an- 
swer to this demand 
came the invention 
of farm machines in 
which one man was 
able to do the work 
of several men in 
the old ways. 







THE STEAM PLOW AT WORK ON A 



From a photograph 
PRAIRIE FARM 









.--> ^-^. 



544. What people in cities did. Here, too, thousands of 
men had shouldered the rifle. Factories found it hard to 
keep their ranks of workmen filled. Offices everywhere 
had to double up on work. Many women came foward 
to take the place of men. The government demanded 
large amounts of clothing. This kept the factories at work 
making cloth. 
Then there came 
the demand for 
war materials — 
guns, powder, 
shot, and shell, 
and new facto- 
ries had to be 
built. New war- 
ships and new 
ironclads had to 
be constructed. 
The government at Washington paid well for this work. 

545. The war sets an example to business firms. The 
war taught many lessons. It showed the people on both 




PLOWING CORN WITH A SULKY CULTIVATOR 



Growth oj Industry in the Nation 411 

sides that the way to success was easier and quicker by 
a few great armies than by many small ones. Business 
firms learned a lesson from this. They began to unite. 
Firms doing the same business in the same part of the 
country found it paid better to unite than to fight each 
other for trade. Of course all competition did not cease, 
then or later, but there were many trade combinations 
formed. 

From these beginnings came our great corporations or 
trusts. The government kept upthe "war tariffs" and 
this favored these combinations. By 1880 industries of 
all kinds were beginning to unite in the South as well as 
in the North. 

GROWTH OF INDUSTRY IN THE NATION 

546. The Homestead Act (1862). Congress passed a 
law making it easy for every settler to own a farm in the 
West. After five years of real residence the "home- 
steader " became ^_ _ ^ ^,,^~.r^^-7k 

the possessor of '^"'1(8^^'^% s^^^*!^^^"^^"^^ " j ^^'^^TfT ' 
160 acres of JmZ^^ si ; ^l^^^^S ~ >i''iM3^ 

prairie or forest -^•^'^'H^X^m^^^lV^^^ 

land. In a little •^J^^^l^-."^^^^"^^^ 

more than ten "** - - 

\7-(^arc' fimp' n^T-Ar A kerosene MOTOR attached TO MOWING machines 

27,000,000 acres were taken up and turned into farms. 

547. Improvements in farm machinery (1860-1900). 

This growth in farms could not have taken place had it 
not been for a widespread growth in new ways of doing 
the work on the farm. Once farmers sowed their wheat, 
oats, rye, barley, timothy, and clover by hand, but invent- 
ors had been busy and now came a machine for sow- 
ing, one for drilling, and still another for planting 



412 



Industrial Progress 



corn. Great fields of corn needed plowing and some bright 
mind invented the cultivator for either walking or driving. 
Certainly these vast fields of waving grass and 

grain would have been impos sible without the 

invention and improvements of ^. the mower, reaper, 










From • photosrspb 



A STEAM HARVESTER AND THRESHER 



and thresher (§390). The farmer had to find some way 
of taking care of his increased and hay, some one 
announced the revolving hay rake. The factories turned 
out farm machinery so fast that much of it was sold to 
the farmers of Europe. 

548. Farms grow larger in the North, smaller in the 
South. The breaking up of the large plantations in 
the South came as a result of the war. But this did 
not result in raising less but really in raising more cotton 
and grain. From i860 to 1900 the South was turning 
its attention to other crops. Again this did not mean 
that she raised less cotton, for in 1879 she produced 
nearly 130,000,000 pounds more than ever before. 

In the North farms - before the war were not large, 
because of the forests. But when people began to pour 
into the prairie States, men saw the chance for larger 
farms, and with the steam tractor, the kerosene or gaso- 
line motor to help, one man could own thousands of acres. 



Growth of Industry in the Nation 



413 



549. Mills for grinding grain. The boy living in the 
country who has not ridden to mill upon a bag of corn or 
wheat has missed a joy, 
especially the fishing and «**^ ^ 

swimming that went 

with it. When the steam , _ __ 

mill took the place of ^i,^j^^^i^. -■^^^.^^B^i'^^. . 
the old water mill, 




AN OLD WATER MILL WITH PEOPLE WAITING 
THEIR TURN 



farmers began to haul 

great loads of grain to 

mill and trade it for 

meal and flour. Now 

they do not go to mill at all, but sell their wheat and 

corn to the merchant at the nearest railroad station. 

This grain goes to great buildings called elevators and 

thence to the great city where thousands of bushels are - 

ground in one day. It comes back to the store where 







jm/Miiu... 



^^Cj=S;S.,~4iii^, -^^ ~ -^ From a photograph 

A MODERN MILL FROM WHICH WHEAT AND FLOUR ARE SHIPPED TO ALL PARTS 

OF THE WORLD 

farmers and other people buy flour or meal — it may be 
from grain raised hundreds of miles away. 



414 



Industrial Progress 



550. The old and the new sawmill. The first sawmill 
was not very much of a mill. Two men furnished the 

power, one above and 
the other below the 
log and drew a saw up 
and down. How rapid 
'' and easy it seemed 
when water furnished 
the power! But what 
a wonder is the modern 
mill with its dozens of 
saws moving so rapidly 
that they seem to be standing still yet turning out thou- 
sands of feet of lumber each day. Our great cities could 
not have been built without the help of the modern saw- 
mill. 

551. Cattle raising and packing houses. The day 
when a family sits down to a table filled with food raised 




THE OLD WATER SAWMILL 




From a photograph 



THE LARGEST HTVIBER MILL IN THE WORLD 



in the neighborhood has passed away for the great major- 
ity of people. Before the war of 1861, farmers and every 



Growth of Industry in the Nation 



415 



city of considerable size packed their own meat. In 
1873 more than 400 firms packed meat in the United 
States. Before 1900 there were only twenty-five meat- 



/"- 




^'av .- f^i/C , "* ^"^ ^j-'~ From a photograph 

COWBOYS DRIVING CATTLE FROM THE PRAIRIE PASTURAGE 

packing firms left! What great concentration had gone 
on in the meat-packing industry! 

The first fat cattle were driven across the Alleghenies 
and sold in Baltimore as early as 1805. The States 
between the Mississippi and the Alleghenies, when first 
settled, sent great droves of hogs and cattle to eastern 
markets. The farmers had fattened them on the mast 
(acorns) of the forests. The grassy plains of the Rocky 
Mountain region, from north to south, now produce 
most of our meat. Through the perfection of the refrig- 
erator cars and vessels we may now eat meat raised 
more than 1,000 miles from home. 



4i6 



Industrial Progress 



552. Old and new coal mines. Wood was so plentiful 
in colonial and Revolutionary days that coal was not 




From a photograpli 



INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS IN THE SOUTH 

Iron and steel works in a Southern city 



much used. Only after the war of 1861 did we make 
much progress in mining coal. The old mines were 
dangerous, when deep, because of coal gas which some- 
times caused explosions. The new inventions have made 
life fairly safe in the mines thousands of feet from the 
surface. The pumping of air into mines keeps the miners 
in better health. '^^ 

Hard coal is found chiefly in Pennsylvania, but soft 
coal now blesses over half of the states of the Union. 
Regions rich in coal have lately been discovered in 
Alaska. America is the richest coal country in the world. 

553. Iron mines old ajid new. In colonial days George 
Washington's father was captain of a vessel carrying iron 
from Maryland and Virginia to London. Then for a time 
the South lost first place in the iron trade. This honor 
went to the State of Pennsylvania. But now again the 



Growth of Industry in the Nation 417 

States of the South are producing 
more coal and iron than all the 
States of the Union taken to- 
gether produced in 1870. The 
great steel mills in Birmingham 
and other cities of the South have 
risen with astonishing rapidity. ^^^ 

554. The discovery of petro- 
leum and natural gas. Petro- 
leum, sometimes called "coal 
oil," was known before i860 and 
used as medicine. In 1859, in 
Pennsylvania, it sold for $29 per 
barrel, but in 1880 it was going 
at less than $1.00 per barrel. 
Among the richest fields in the 
United States are those in Okla- 
homa, Louisiana, and Texas. 

Over 200 articles are made 
from crude oil. The most com- 
mon are kerosene and gasoline. 

Natural gas also was known 
before the war, but did not come 
into wide use until 1870 to 1900, 
taking the lead for the time being 
over kerosene for both heating 
and lighting. In 1895 Pennsyl- 
vania and Indiana led all other 
States, each producing over 
$5 ,000,000 worth. But the supply 
does not promise to keep up. 

The wide demand for both oil the process of illumination 

1 1 11. 1 • .1 FROM CANDLE TO LAMP, TO GAS, 

and gas has led to sending these to electricity 




4i8 



Industrial Progress 



products hundreds of miles through pipes to distant 
cities. Much of the oil is piped to seaports where great 
oil steamers carry it to all parts of the world. 

The tallow dip was among the first ways of lighting 
houses. Then followed the candle, the kerosene lamp, 
and natural and coal gas, and now electricity makes 
night into day. 

555. Growth of cotton and other factories. One cause 
of the American Revolution lay in the fact that Britain 




SOUTHERN COTTON MILL 



tried to hinder the manufactures carried on in colonial 
days. After the Constitution was made (1789) America 
produced all sorts of goods. The tariff, as we have seen, 
helped all kinds of manufactures. Up to i860 the South 
raised cotton and the North and England made it into cot- 
ton goods. After the South got over the war she began to 
manufacture the cotton she raised. Now she bids fair 
to outstrip all sections in the number of her cotton mills. 



Growth of Industry in the Nation 



419 



556. The growth of railroads. 

Railroads have taken the place 
of the "pony express" for carry- 
ing mail and of the "overland 
stage" for carrying passengers. 
They have also prevented the 
canal and the river from becom- 
ing the chief means of trade 
between sections. In spite of the 
war, railroads grew from 30,000 
miles in i860 to over 90,000 
miles in 1880, and still they are 
building. 

The discovery of gold and sil- 
ver on the Pacific and in the 
Rocky Mountain region brought 
both people and railroads there. 
The Union Pacific, with the 
help of Congress, reached the 
western ocean by the joining of 
two lines of road (1869) near 
Ogden, Utah. The Southern 
Pacific, uniting New Orleans with 
the western coast, was finished 
in 1 88 1. Since that time other 
roads have joined the distant 
East with the distant West. In 
our day the railroad has two 
promising rivals — the automo- 
bile and the airplane. One has 
made the journey across the coun- 
try a holiday trip and the other 
has made it one of rapid flight. 




The Rocket, 1825 




Firsl Campbell, 1837 




Early Baldwin, 184S 




N. Y. Central, li 




Twentieth Century Limited, IQ18 

DEVELOPMENT OF THE 
LOCOMOTIVE 



420 



Industrial Progress 



When railroads first began, the companies built lines 
to near-by cities. They soon saw that this did not pay. 
The result was that two or three companies joined their 



-^4 




THE OVERLAND STAGE 



roads. This process has gone on until we now have a 
few great roads like the New York Central, the Baltimore 
& Ohio, the Southern, and so on. Only by joining hands 
has it been possible to carry on the commerce of the coun- 
try. In 191 7, the government saw that only by joining 
the entire system under a single authority would it be 
able to meet the requirements of transportation during 
the war with Germany. The government assumed control 
(December, 191 7) (§618). 

THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR 

557. Laborers begin to join hands. Long before the 
war of 1 86 1 laborers were beginning to unite. After the 
war, the men who worked in shop and mine and field and 
factory saw wages begin to fall.^-''^ They formed labor 
unions to keep wages up and to shorten the long hours 
of labor. The first national victory for labor unions 



The Struggle between Capital and Labor 



421 



occurred when Congress passed the eight-hour law for all 
persons working for the government. 

558. The labor organizations strike. After the panic 
of 1873 the railroads cut down wages and the first great 
strike occurred. Pittsburgh was its center. More than 
$10,000,000 worth of property was destroyed before 
State and national troops could stop the disorder (1877). 

By 1 88 1 the Knights of Labor, a national organization, 
had united many labor bodies into one great body. In 
1886 St. Louis was the center of a great railroad strike 
carried on by the Knights of Labor. Order was restored 
by calling out the troops. 







A RIOT 
A street scene in one of the railroad strikes 



From a photograph 



The Haymarket Riots (1886) in Chicago took place to 
secure eight hours as a day's labor. At a great meeting 
an anarchist threw a bomb. It exploded and killed 
14 



42 2 Industrial Progress 

several people. Some of the leaders were hanged and 
others put in prison. In New York City anarchists were 
arrested for starting a riot. The Knights of Labor now 
began to die out.^^^ To-day the great labor organization 
is the American Federation of Labor. 

The coming of another panic (1893) showed itself by 
the great Homestead Strike (1892). The company had 
cut down the wages of its men in the iron mills at Home- 
stead, Pennsylvania. The strikers killed a number of 
guards hired by the mill owners. The governor called 
out the militia and restored order. 

Right on the heels of the panic of 1893 came the great 
Pullman strike (1894). The Pullman Car Company at 
Chicago tried to cut down the wages of its workmen. 
The men struck and ordered no train to be run carrying a 
Pullman car. But President Cleveland ordered national 
troops to protect the mail and interstate commerce 
(§515). This broke the back of the strike. 

559. The strikes among coal miners. The coal miners 
followed the example of other workmen and formed an 
organization of their own, called the United Mine Workers 
of America. In 1900, 100,000 hard coal miners struck 
for higher wages. Public sentiment compelled the miners 
and the mine owners to settle the strike. But the miners 
were not satisfied and struck again (1902). The soft 
coal miners sent money to aid them, but President 
Roosevelt compelled both parties to arbitrate (§503). 

The next great coal strike came in Colorado (191 4- 15). 
Both sides were armed. In spite of Roosevelt's way of 
bringing the operators and miners together, the long- 
continued strike showed that there was still much to learn. 

560. Solving the difficulty. When the strikers have a 
real complaint and go about settling the difficulty in a 



Causes of the War with Spain 



423 



reasonable way they generally have the support of public 
opinion and win out. The opposite is also true. At 
times it raises, in the minds of some people, the question 
whether or not a still better way cannot be found of 
settling the differences between labor and capital. 

THE BEGINNING OF EXPANSION 

CAUSES OF THE WAR WITH SPAIN 

561. An old-time conflict. Very early in American 
history Spain and 
England were in 
conflict ( § 17 ). 
They were rivals 
in the race for 
America. Long 
before an Eng- 
lish colony was 
founded at James- 
town, Spain had 
possession of the 
West Indies, Mex- 




HOW THE CUBANS FOUGHT 
Lying in ambush for the advancing column of the enemy 



ico, and most of 

South America. 

But she ruled her colonies like a tyrant, to say nothing 

of the way she treated the native Indians. 

When America became independent she came into 
collision with Spain at the mouth of the Mississippi 
(§250) and in Florida (§308). Through bad government 
Spain drove her great colonies in ])vlexico and South 
America into rebellion and lost them all. But she still 
held sway over Cuba and Porto Rico. 

562. Spanish cruelty in Cuba. Cuba^^^ from its first 
settlement had been ground down by taxation to support 



424 



The Beginning of Expansion 



her Spanish governors and soldiers. The natural result 
of years of suffering and misrule was to drive the Cubans 
into rebellion. Long-continued wars between 1868 and 
1895 left them and their beautiful island home in a fearful 
condition. During these wars the Americans deeply 
sympathized with the Cubans. Leaders in New Orleans 
and New York sent money and guns to aid the rebels. 
Men loving adventure and liberty slipped away from our 
country, especially from the South, and joined the Cubans 
in their fight for freedom. 






GULF OF MEXJCa 




CO' \ -S^:c: Ve-%\ c^'*S<<>' 



A r L A N T [ C 



O C E A N 



j-":'^ 



^•*--kil 



^: 



ITISH 



^^A, * ft ^*-? Y^' ? A* POKTO *• o, 

V,V> . V * KICO <C(^, ^ 

^^ _ ^^j;rRAL ^.y^^ ^ -^ T I L L E 9 « «■?> \ 







PORTO RICO AND CUBA 

Showing the importance of Porto Rico as <i slopping point on the ivay to the Panama Canal 



563. The difficult position of the United States. The 

government tried to remain friendly with Spain, but Spain 
was very angry because we could not stop our citizens 



Causes of the War with Spain 



425 




from going to aid the Cubans. As far back as President 
Polk, efforts had been made to buy Cuba, but Spain 
refused to sell. It was danger- 
ous to have Cuba owned by 
a foreign nation. American 
business men had put large 
sums of money into Cuban 
industry, but the industry had 
been destroyed by war. Spain 
threatened to destroy the 
Cuban people by taking them 
from their homes and means 
of living and driving them/'^ 
into towns. The United 
States sought to bring about 
peace, Spain would not listen 
to the offer, and the Cubans 
would accept nothing but in- 
dependence. Congress voted 

$50,000 to keep the Cubans from starving, and thou- 
sands of dollars were spent by the Red Cross Society in 
helping them. 

564. The destruction of the "Maine" and declaration 
of war (1898). The United States warship, the "Maine," 
was sent to Cuba to watch over our interests. She was 
blown up in Havana harbor (February 15, 1898) and over 
260 of her crew perished. The whole country was 
aroused, and firmly believed that it was the work of 
Spaniards. Congress voted $50,000,000 for war, de- 
clared that Cuba ought to be free, and gave President 
McKinley (189 7-1 901) the right to use the army and 
navy to compel Spain to get out of Cuba. War was 
declared April 25, 1898. 



BVom 8 photr.graph by Smith 
CLARA BAR TUN 

The founder of the American Red Cross 



426 



The Beginning of Expansion 




THE LEADING EVENTS OF THE WAR WITH SPAIN 

565. Preparations for war. Congress quickly provided 

the money and sent forth a 
call for 250,000 volunteers. 
Many more answered. It was 
an inspiring sight to see the 
sons of the Gray and the Blue, 
not a generation since Appo- 
mattox (§476), volunteering 
to fight side by side. A part 
of the navy protected the 
seacoast cities and another 
blockaded Cuba. 

566. Dewey captures Ma- 
nila (May I, 1898). Before 
men had time to think, the 

From a photograph by Frances B. Johnston mOSt far-rCachlng CVent Of thC 
ADMIRAL GEORGE DEWEY 

The third Civil War hero 10 be appointed War OCCUrrcd On the Othcr 

admiral ^-^^ ^^ ^j^^ ^j^^^ . Commodorc 

Dewey destroyed a Spanish fleet and captured Manila 
Bay. He sailed into the bay before daylight and, in four 
hours, had destroyed the Spanish fleet of eleven war- 
ships, silenced the shore batteries, and had not lost a 
single man. He was Admiral Dewey now! This event 
produced great excitement in America and created 
astonishment in Europe. Only England was in sym- 
pathy with America. 

Dewey waited for General Merritt to bring his army 
across the Pacific. In August, Manila and the Philip- 
pines fell to us. Spain lost her richest remaining colonies 
and the United States stepped into the world's arena. 

567. Another Spanish fleet destroyed. America was 
stirred by news of a great Spanish fieet coming to Cuba. 



The Leading Events of the War with Spain 427 



Commodore Schley, commanding the Flying Squadron, 
hastened to the southern coast of Cuba. Rear-Admiral 
Sampson watched its northern coast. But the Spanish 
ships, under Cervera, slipped silently into Santiago 
harbor. For fear they might escape, our fleet now kept 
watch here day and night. And Ensign Hobson,i^^ of 
Alabama, with six volunteers, selected from many, sank 
the coaling vessel "Merrimac" in the harbor's mouth to 
shut in the Spaniards (§281). This daring deed, only 
partly successful, was done in the midst of a furious fire 
from the Spanish guns. Hobson and his men were cap- 
tured, but were well treated because of their bravery. 

Early in July, Cervera resolved to break through the 
American ships and escape. With his flagship leading the 
Spanish fleet, he came out under a full head of steam. 
Each American commander chose the Spanish vessel 
nearest his own. The flash of many cannon and the great 
clouds of smoke made a picture 
never to be forgotten. Within 
four hours all the Spanish ves- 
sels had surrendered or had 
been sunk, and 500 men had 
been killed or wounded. One 
American had been killed and 
another wounded, but not a 
ship had been harmed. Europe 
was amazed. 

568. The American army 
in Cuba (1898). Cervera left 
Santiago just before the city 
fell. General Shaffer was in 
control of the army in Cuba. 




From a photograph by Bell 
JOSEPH WHEELER 

The cavalry was com- 



manded by General Joseph Wheeler, a Confederate^^^ 



428 



The Beginning of Expansion 



of renown (§448), whom the boys had nicknamed 
"Fighting Joe Wheeler." Under him were the famous 
"Rough Riders" headed by Colonel Wood and Lieu- 
tenant-Colonel Roosevelt, made up of cowboys, ranch- 
men, Indians, and athletes from the universities. 

Our boys suffered greatly from the hot sun, the heavy 
rains, and the dense tropical forests. But they did brave 
work in the charges at El Caney and San Juan Hill. On 
July 17, Santiago surrendered. General Miles, who com- 
manded the whole army, took Porto Rico with very little 
loss. These events had hardly occurred before rumors 

of peace glad- 
dened the 
hearts of every 
one. 

569. The 
treaty of peace. 
On the day 
before Manila 
fell under the 




fp^ blows of Dewey 
^ and Merritt, 
the French 
ambassador, at 
the request of 
Spain, signed 
the first draft 
of a treaty of 
peace. Peace 
commissioners 
agreed on the 
following terms, which were ratified by both governments : 
(/) That Cuba should be free, and that Porto Rico and 



From the painting by Vereahchagin 
CHARGE OF THE ROUGH RIDERS AT SAN JUAN 



The Leading Events of the War with Spain 429 



Guam should fall to the United States as payment for 
her expenses in the war; (2) That Spain should turn over 
the Philip- 
pines^^^ to the 
United States 
for$2o,ooo,coo. 
570. Other 
results of the 
war. (z) This 
war proved to 
the whole 
world what 
Americans 
already knew : 
That in the 
presence of a 
common foe 
the country 
is one. Our 

men fought bravely, and few were killed, but in spite of 
the noble work of the Red Cross '•^■' ten times the number 
killed in battle perished from disease. (2) The United 
States now became the owner of colonies. She had 
already annexed the Hawaiian group of islands (§571), 
but now over 400 islands"" were hers. Governing colonies 
was a new and difficult problem for our people, especially 
since the colonies were thousands of miles away and 
belonged to a different race. (3) This led to enlarging 
the army and navy and to an increase in the number of 
civil officers. (4) One of the immediate results was the 
growth of our trade with these islands. Besides, many 
of our people have gone to these islands for business, for 
teaching, and for pleasure. (5) A new field was opened 




ESCOLTA, ONE OF THE PRINCIPAL STREETS OF MANILA 



430 



The Beginning of Expansion 



up for the spread of American ideas. Not the least of 
these was the bringing about of more healthful condi- 
tions in the islands. 
The American public 
schools established 
in Porto Rico and 
the Philippines gave 
proof that America 
was not altogether 
selfish in dealing 
with them. The 
quick victories of 
our army and navy 
deeply impressed 
Europe. When the 
United States with- 
drew from Cuba 
(1902) it left an 
island fairly on the 
way to happiness 
and prosperity — a 
new day dawned for 
the political mor- 
ality of mankind. 




N. ii(ji-,x.t;i> 



THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 



AMERICA IN THE FAR EAST 

571. Hawaii and other islands. In 1893 American 
sailors aided in the overthrowing of the queen of Hawaii 
and in setting up a republic, but President Cleveland 
refused annexation (§524). The Spanish- American War 
changed the situation and the Hawaiian group "^ was 
annexed (1898). By the treaty with Spain the United 
States came into possession of Guam, one of the Ladrones. 



America in the Far East 



431 



For a long time we had trouble with Germany over the 
Samoan Islands, in the South Pacific. Finally it was 
settled (1900) by England withdrawing and by the 
division of the islands between the United States and 
Germany. 

572. The trouble in the Philippines (1899). Before 
the war with Spain the Filipinos had revolted against 
Spanish oppression and joined Dewey in the capture of 
Manila. Later, because the United States refused their 
demand for independence, they made war upon the 
Americans. But the Filipinos were easily defeated, their 
little army broken up into small bands, and Aguinaldo, 
their leader, captured (1901). 

573. The kindly rule of the United States. The 
Filipinos were treated, not as a conquered race, but rather 
as "wards of the nation." President McKinley sent 
Judge WilHam H. Taft to be 
governor. By his good nature and 
wise treatment he won his way to 
the hearts of this race. An edu- 
cational and property qualification 
for voting was established, and in 
1907 over 100,000 people cast their 
votes for members of the Assembly. 
In 1906 nearly $2,500,000 were 
spent for education, paying in part 
the 5,500 native and 800 American 
teachers. In addition large sums 
were spent for making Manila and 
other towns more sanitary. 

574. A new way to treat China. 
tary of state, John Hay, appealed to all the nations for 
an "open door" policy in trading with China."^ Almost 




■tss?^ 



From a photograph by Eliot 
& Fry, LondoQ 

JOHN HAY 



In 1899, our secre- 



432 • The Beginning of Expansion 

immediately the Boxer rebellion against foreigners broke 
out. Leading nations hurried troops to China. For- 
tunately General Chaffee from the Philippines hastened 
to China with a force. The rebellion was easily sup- 
pressed and China had to pay a vast sum of money to 
the different nations. The United States did not use 
half of the part that fell to her, but she gave back 
$13,000,000. China, out of gratitude, has since been 
using this sum to send young men to America to be 
educated. The United States was taking part in 
Chinese affairs in a new way. 

NEW POLITICAL IDEAS 

575. The presidential campaign (1900). The old 

parties went before the country with their old champions, 
Bryan and McKinley. They took opposite views in 
regard to the tariff, the free coinage of silver, and the 
treatment of the Porto Ricans and the Filipinos. The 
Republicans endorsed what Congress had done about 
the Filipinos, and the Democrats insisted it was wrong 
to rule them without their consent. A number of Repub- 
licans known as Anti-Imperialists, opposed to America 
having colonies and becoming a world power, voted for 
Bryan. McKinley won by a larger majority than four 
years before. 

576. Roosevelt becomes president (1901-1905). After 
McKinley's inauguration he accepted an invitation to the 
Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo. He made an 
address, and while he was- shaking hands with the thou- 
sands who came to greet him, an anarchist shot him. 
After a week of suffering he died, our third martyred 
President (§§477, 512). Congress immediately passed a 
law to punish attacks upon the president and other high 



New Political Ideas 



433 



officers in the government. Theodore Roosevelt,"'^ a 
man of tremendous mental and physical energy, was 
promoted from the vice-presi- 
dency to be president. He was 
a new force in American poli- 
tics and stood for progressive 
measures. 

577. Cuba: Annexation or 
protection. Under the circum- 
stances European nations, if in 
our place, would probably have 
annexed Cuba. But America 
was setting another example to 
the world: generosity toward a 
small nation. She remained in 
Cuba only long enough (1902) 
to see a constitution made, a 
president and Congress elected, 
and courts established. She 
taught the Cubans how to rid 
their greatest city, Havana, of that terrible disease, 
yellow fever (§432).^** 

Cuba, however, agreed to permit no nation to get a 
foothold in the island and that the United States might 
interfere to preserve order. For four years the Cubans 
kept order, and then we had to enter Cuba once more 
(1906). After three years all was quiet, and the United 
States again proved her generosity by withdrawing all 
forces. 

578. The Panama Canal. America felt the need of a 
canal to the Pacific in the dispute with England over 
Oregon (§352). In the rush for California (§365) we got 
the right from Colombia, and built a railroad. A French 




From a photograph by Pach Bros. 
THEODORE ROOSEVELT 



434 



The Beginning of Expansion 




LEONARD WOOD 

Governor-General of Cuba 



company later undertook a canal, but failed (1889). 

When the Spanish War came a canal was bound to be 

built and the United States 
planned to construct one through 
Nicaragua. Then the French 
company wanted to sell and the 
United States bought them out 
for $40,000,000. But Colombia 
immediately refused to treat with 
us for a strip of land across 
the isthmus. 

The state of Panama seceded 
from Colombia. President 
Roosevelt immediately recognized 
her as an independent nation. 

Panama then gave us complete control over a strip of 

land ten miles wide running from sea to sea. For this 

we paid a snug sum of money. 

"Dirt began to fly" early in 

' 1904, and in 191 4 the first ship 

passed through the canal. The 

canal is from 300 to 1,000 feet 

wide and twelve locks lift the 

ship to meet the differences in 

level. Nearly 40,000 men were 

working on the canal at the 

same time, but so perfect were -''; 

the sanitary surroundings that 

they escaped the diseases that 

slew thousands when the rail- 
road was built (§578). 

Situated near the canal, our Southern States are bound 

to be greatly helped by it. The Pacific States are also 




GEORGE WASHINGTON GOETHALS 
Chief Engineer, Panama Canal 



New Political Ideas 



435 



benefited, since, with the canal, they are now no longer 
at the mercy of the railroads. Both western South 
America and the Far East will have their commerce 
greatly stimulated. In war the United States can 
quickly transfer her warships east or west. The distance 
by sea from New York to San Francisco will be shortened 



CARIBBEAN 



, <n 5"- 



^/, 



Q 
O' 

Ob 



.Uas Santos G ULF °5^^»^ ^ 
»liab Tablas /) p ^"^^ 

P i N i M -i 



SEA 





CoIBAAf ^■--^ 

JicaronI*^ I \^^ 



PA C I F I C 



OCEAN 




THE REPUBLIC OF PANAMA 
Showing the route of the Canal 

more than half; from Liverpool to San Francisco ships 
will save over 6,000 miles. 

579. A newer Monroe Doctrine. The Monroe Doc- 
trine when first asserted meant that European nations 
were not to plant colonies nor to oppress the nations on 
this side of the Atlantic (§319). Cleveland, a Democratic 
president, took the first step in making the United States 
a kind of protector over Western nations having difficul- 
ties with European nations. Great Britain threatened 
to enforce her claims to land in dispute between 
Venezuela and British Guiana. President Cleveland 
took a stand (1895) which compelled Great Britain to 
arbitrate the question. 



436 



The Beginning of Expansion 



San Domingo was a little nation. She was bankrupt. 
European nations whom she owed were threatening to 
interfere. President Roosevelt declared that it was our 
duty to see that San Domingo gave no trouble. He 
appointed a man to collect her revenues and to pay her 
debts, with her consent. This was another great step 
toward the New Monroe Doctrine. 

580. Pan- Americanism. The people of white blood 
living south of the United States have come chiefly from 
Spain and Portugal. By kinship and by business, there- 
fore, these people have been connected with Europe 
rather than with America. But the political differences 
with Europe have been mainly in our favor. 

Ever since Henry Clay,""' warm-hearted and enthusi- 




From a photograph 
THK PAN AMERICAN UNION BUILDING, WASHINGTON, D.C. 



astic, looked forward to a great league of American 
republics the United States has looked upon the nations 



New Political Ideas 



437 



south of us with a friendly eye. All differences, except 
in the case of Mexico, have been settled without war. 

i 

A 











From a photograph 
THE CARNEGIE PEACE PALACE, AT THE HAGUE 

When Benjamin Harrison was president and Blaine 
was secretary of state, a meeting of all the American 
nations was called in Washington City'^" (1889). The 
result was a friendlier feeling and the beginning of a move- 
ment which led to the Pan-American Union, which now 
does its work in the Pan-American Building in Wash- 
ington. This Union carries on a wide correspondence 
and sends forth pamphlets, bulletins, and reports in three 
languages, thus aiding in the promotion of commerce 
and friendship with South America. 

581. The Hague conference for peace.^^^ In 1899 the 
Czar of Russia called the leading nations of the world 
together to discuss the best ways of keeping peace. This 
conference met at The Hague, a city in Holland, and 
established a court before which the nations were to take 
their disputes instead of setthng them by war. Andrew 
Carnegie generously erected at The Hague a building 



43 8 ^^^ Beginning of Expansion 

for the sittings of the Court. President Roosevelt suggest- 
ed the second conference (1907). It met and considered 
many things about arbitration and what nations mak- 
ing wars should or should not do. It was agreed that all 
international financial claims should be submitted to 
arbitration. This was advocated by the United States 
for the protection of Venezuela. The great European 
war (19 14), involving the leading nations of Europe, 
stood in the way of holding another conference. 

582. The Alaskan boundary settled by arbitration 
(1903) . For a long time the boundary of Alaska had been 
in dispute. The discovery of gold in the Klondike and 
the Yukon districts made the boundary line a live ques- 
tion. Great Britain and America had never been so 
friendly as now. Many proofs of this kindly feeling were 
given during the war with Spain. These two nations did 
not need The Hague court to settle this dispute, but 
named their own men to sit as a court of arbitration. 
This was the second time America and England showed 
to the world a better way than war (§525). 

583. The coal strike settled by arbitration (1902). 
It was natural that President Roosevelt, with so many 
examples of arbitration before him, should settle one of 
the most dangerous strikes in this way. Over 100,000 
Pennsylvania hard-coal miners quit work for more pay 
and shorter hours. They held out for six months. 
Coal had more than doubled in price. Winter was 
approaching and great harm was threatened to the 
nation. The President got the miners and the mine 
owners to agree to arbitration. This was a great victory 
not only for arbitration but for justice. But it showed 
the American people they had to "foot the bill." When- 
ever a dispute is so settled that wages are increased or 



New Political Ideas 439 

the hours of work shortened the people have to pay 
higher prices for the articles produced. 

584. The campaign of 1904. The candidate of -the 
Republicans was President Roosevelt and that of the 
Democrats Alton B. Parker. The Democrats had been 
twice defeated with Bryan as a candidate, so they tried 
Parker, a less radical man. But the people liked the new 
ways of doing things that Roosevelt showed. Parker 
was defeated by a greater majority than Bryan had 
been (§§525, 574). 

Roosevelt took his majority much as Jackson had done 
(§326) and continued to plan the reforms that the people 
wanted. But the more conservative men in Congress 
opposed these reforms, defeated some of them, and had 
others changed. 

585. The Roosevelt reforms. One measure, passing 
Congress, gave the Interstate Commerce Commission 
(§515) power to prevent railroads from secretly giving a 
big shipper better rates than a small shipper. 

A second law aimed to make the great meat-packing 
houses more careful to sell only sound meat to the people. 
A third measure was the "Pure Food Act." This 
requires that all food taken out of a State for sale shall 
have correct labels upon it. 

Roosevelt had the officers of certain "bad trusts," as 
he called them, arrested and tried for breaking the laws 
against trusts. Some business men now accused him 
of injuring "business." They pointed to the "panic" 
which followed as proof of this statement (1907). 

586. The fleet goes around the world. The result of 
the war between Japan and Russia opened the eyes of 
the world to that sturdy Httle yellow race that dared 
attack the giant nation of Russia. President Roosevelt 



440 



The Beginning of Expansion 



invited the two nations to meet at Portsmouth (1905) 
and make a treaty under the American flag. The 
Japanese felt that Russia got the better of her in the 
treaty and laid the blame on Roosevelt. 

Other events came up that showed that the United 
States and Japan might get into a quarrel. President 
Roosevelt sent an American fleet of sixteen warships 
around the world. After a great display in Hampton 
Roads, Rear-Admiral Evans started with sixteen vessels 
around South America to our Pacific coast cities. Rear- 
Admiral Sperry then took command and sailed for Hawaii, 
Australia, Japan, and cities on the west coast of China. 
Wherever the sailor lads landed they were given a right 
royal welcome. This was especially true in Japan. 
There was little talk of war after that. The fleet returned 
by way of the Suez Canal, and the whole country felt 
that this trip had been a wise one. 







AMKRICAN B.VTTLESHIPS LEAVING HAMPTON ROADS 

587. The presidential election of 1908. The Demo- 
crats again nominated Bryan. The RepubHcans nomi- 



New Political Ideas 



441 



nated Judge William H. Taft, former governor of the 
Philippines, and secretary of war under Roosevelt. Both 
Socialist and Prohibition parties had candidates in the 
field. The campaign was conducted with energy but upon 
a high plane. Taft was elected. 

588. A higher tariff law. 
The people had been talking 
in favor of a low tariff on im- 
ported goods, but Congress 
passed and the President signed 
a bill making the tariff higher 
( § 486) . He also declared it was 
the best tariff ever madeby Con- 
gress. But the people did not 
agree with him, for in the next 
election the Democrats won a 
majority in the House (19 10). 

589. Cutting down the 
speaker's power (1910). Ever 
since Henry Clay was speaker 
of the House that officer has 
been a very powerful man 
(§288). He could really help 
or hinder the passing of laws. 
great speaker, was nicknamed "Czar Reed" because he 
wanted things his own way. Early in the year 19 10 the 
speaker's chief source of strength — the power to name 
the committees of the House — was lessened. This power 
was given into the hands of a committee. The House 
could not now be ruled by one man. 

590. The controversy over "conservation of natural 
resources." Early in Taft's administration a dispute 
arose over whether our government was too loose in 




From a photograph by Cliaedinst 
WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT 

Tom Reed of Maine, a 



442 The Beginning of Expansion 

managing our forests, waterways, and coal lands. Many- 
people thought these natural resources ought not to be 
let out or sold to great corporations. Others thought 
that in this way population would be attracted to the 
newer States. The result has been to make both Congress 
and the president more careful in letting out our natural 
resources to corporations. 

591. Democratic attempts at reform. The Democrats 
now controlled the House, and once in a while the Senate. 
How to make changes in the laws and still hold those 
Republicans who had helped cut down the speaker's 
power, was a hard problem. Underwood of Alabama was 
just the man to lead them: He was neither too conser- 
vative nor too radical. 

President Taft called an extra session of Congress (Con- 
stitution, Art. n, §3) to discuss reciprocity with Canada. 
Underwood, too, favored it, because it meant the lowering 
of the tariff so far as Canada was concerned. Unfortu- 
nately the Canadian people rejected reciprocity. Con- 
gress went farther and introduced bills further reducing 
the tariff by permitting the farmer to buy certain goods 
without having to pay the tariff. President Taft vetoed 
this bill. Not discouraged. Congress changed the tariff 
on articles made of wool or cotton. Again the President 
vetoed. If these measures had been allowed to pass 
they would have won votes for him, but since they were 
vetoed they helped the Democratic party. 

592. Changes in the post office. Two very important 
reforms were made during Taft's presidency. One was 
the establishing of postal savings banks (19 10) in the 
larger towns where people could put their money with 
almost absolute safety. Many people born across the 
sea had been used to such banks, and for them, as well 



New Political Ideas 



443 



as for others, doing a banking business with the nation 
counts for much. A person needs to be only ten years old 
and to have but one dollar to become a depositor. Within 
four years these banks counted $40,000,000 which nearly 
400,000 persons had deposited. 

The second reform was more bitterly fought : the estab- 
lishing of a parcel post (19 12). For many years people 
had been working for this measure. It was supposed to 
be against the interest of the express companies, for the 
government was able to carry packages more cheaply 
than any private company. Every day in the cities, you 
can see the parcel post horse and wagon or automobile 
truck going around from one substation to another gather- 
ing up the packages that have been weighed and stamped. 
More people are sending more packages than ever before 




THE PARCEL POST SECTION OF A LARGE CITY POST OFFICE 

both by parcel post and by express because the express 
companies have cut their charges. 



444 



The Beginning of Expansion 



593. The last States admitted. Oklahoma, "the beau- 
tiful land," had been a part of the Louisiana Purchase. 
For a long time it had been known as the Indian Territory. 
It was separated and again united when the battle 
over admission came to an end. From the day when 
President Harrison threw a part of the region open to 
settlers (1889) until the day of admission, she showed 
remarkable gains in population. On the opening day 
Guthrie had business streets marked out and was lined 
with shops, a bank was organized, a daily paper estab- 
lished, and a city council elected. Oklahoma City had 
4,000 people by the census of 1890, 10,000 in 1900, and 
64,000 in 1910, a gain of over 500 per cent. Few cities 
have equaled this record. In 1900 Oklahoma counted 
nearly 800,000, and in 1907 — the year of adoption into 
the sisterhood of States — she numbered over 1,114,000, 




From a photoempn 



GUTHRIE ON THE FIRST NIGHT OF THE OPENING 



the largest population ever admitted with any State. 
The discovery of oil, zinc, and lead has bestowed great 



Neiv Political Ideas 



445 



wealth on its people and the rapid development of 
business interests has been most striking 

A 













lty"''> 



From a photograph 
GUTHRIE FOUR YEARS LATER, A THRIVING AND WELL-BUILT CITY 

The admission of New Mexico and Arizona in 191 2 
marks the end of State making, unless, some day, far-off 
Alaska should come knocking for admission into the 
Union. Both these States were first under the flag of 
Spain and were crossed by Coronado (1540) in his mad 
search for gold (§13). His men saw in Arizona the un- 
rivaled splendor of the Grand Cafion. New Mexico bears 
the signal distinction of holding Santa Fe. the second 
oldest city (1585) in the United States. Thanks to the 
bravery of Colonel Stephen B. Kearney this region fell 
to the United States at the close of the Mexican War, 
under the name of New Mexico. This region was a 
bone of contention in the battle over the Compromise 
of 1850. During the Civil War Arizona (1863) was set 
off "as a territory. After its close both territories gradu- 
ally filled up with people attracted by stories of the 



446 



The Beginning of Expansion 



wealth of minerals of various kinds. A new era broke 
upon these States when the national government started 




1870 and 1910 
Population under '1 per Bq. mi. not taken into acoount 



GROWTH OF SETTLED AREA FROM I87O TO I9IO 

its plan of irrigation. The population became so great 
and the demand for their admission so strong that Con- 
gress had to act (1912). 

594. Fanning by irrigation. Millions of acres in the 
Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast States, although very 
fertile, are too dry for farming. The Indians were the 
first to carry water in ditches to their little farms. In 
1847 the white settlers began doing the same. Later the 
States stepped in to help, and now Texas has the most 
complete state controlled system of irrigation. 

The nation was called in to settle disputes about the 
use of water for irrigatio^i in some places. Finally the 
government (1902) voted money and began work on a 
number of great irrigation projects. It has built the high- 
est dam in the world, on the Boise River, in Idaho, the 
largest one on the Rio Grande, in New Mexico, but the 



New Political Ideas 



447 



widest known one is the Roosevelt Dam in Salt River val- 
ley, Arizona, which sends water to Phoenix, 80 miles away. 







From a photograph 
THE ROOSEVELT DAM ACROSS SALT RIVER 

This great reservoir supplies water to over 200,000 acres in the Salt River Valley 

595. The campaign of 191 2. Before Taft reached the 
end of his term, men saw a widening difference between 
the "Standpatters" and the "Progressives" of the 
Republican party. Many blamed Taft and many blamed 
Roosevelt; the Democrats were happy. There was a big 
family fight in the Republican convention in Chicago. 
Taft was nominated, and little attention was paid to the 
protests of the Progressives. They met, organized a new 
party, and nominated Roosevelt. 

In the meantime the Democrats met at Baltimore. A 
tremendous fight broke out in the convention between 
Clark,"* Wilson, Underwood, and Harmon. They were 
all candidates for the presidency. Bryan seemed to be 
the ruling man, for when he threw his weight to Wilson, 
the latter was chosen. For the fourth time the Socialists 



448 



The Beginning of Expansion 



nominated Debs. The Prohibitionists put up Chapin 
again (§587)- 

596. The result of the election. Wilson won the elec- 
tion. His vote was like Lincoln's in i860: a minority 
of the popular vote but a large electoral vote. The 
winning of three States for woman suffrage made nine 

States up to 191 2 where women 
had won the right to vote (§622). 
597. New ways of voting 
and making laws. The pro- 
gressive people in the South and 
West have used new ways of 
trying to keep the power in the 
hands of the voter, i. Oneway 
is named the Direct Primary 
Election. Here people of a 
party vote for men they think 
best fitted for office. The men 
winning a majority have their 
names put on the ticket to be 
voted for on election day. This 
plan is supposed to be against 
"bosses." 2. The Initiative, 
Referendum, and Recall. The people begin the making 
of a law by asking the legislature, by petition, to pass a 
given measure. The legislature passes a bill and then 
submits it to the people to be voted on ; or if the people 
oppose a law and the required number sign a petition 
against it, the law must be sent to the people to be 
voted on. The first plan of lawmaking is called the 
"initiative" and the second the "referendum." The 
"recall" is a method by which the voters may make a man 
give up the office to which he was elected. 3. The 




THOMAS WOODROW WILSOX 



New Political Ideas 449 

Commission Form of Governm,ent for Cities. This is a new 
way of managing city governments so as to make them 
better and cheaper. It had its beginning in the city of 
Galveston after the great flood. In this plan the people 
elect a few men whom- they hold responsible for governing 
the city. They may or may not hire a city manager. 

598. Wilson stands for progressive measures. Presi- 
dent Wilson called an extra session of Congress, and sur- 
prised everybody by appearing before Congress and 
reading his message in person. This was a return to 
the old custom established by Washington 124 years 
ago, but later broken by Jefferson, who sent his message 
to be read (§ 275). 

The campaign had set people to talking about progres- 
sive measures. Congress proceeded to pass the Under- 
wood Tariff. This gave the "tariff reform," which the 
Democrats had long urged. It cut down the revenue so 
much that other measures had to pass in order to get 
money for the government. 

599. Other important reforms, (j) One of the first 
reforms was a graded income tax (§486) to get money to 
take the place of revenue lost by cutting down the tariff. 
Each person receiving at least $4,000 per year came under 
this law if married, but if unmarried he was taxed on all 
above $3,000.^^^ (2) The good roads act was an important 
measure for a Democratic Congress to pass. It gave 
the States a dollar for every one they spent in making 
roads better (§313). (3) For the sake of better minds 
and bodies for children Congress passed a law forbidding 
them to work in factories when they ought to be in 
school. ' {4) This Congress gave agricultural colleges large 
sums to enable them to help the farmers by carrying 
their teaching to them. (5) It went farther and voted 



450 



The Beginning of Expansion 




AN OLD-TIME MUD ROAD IN EARLY SPRING 



large sums to public schools to train boys and girls in 

farming and shop work. Before the summer was over 

in 191 5 a bill 
. called the 
Federal Re- 
/ serve Law was 
passed. It 
aimed to pro- 
vide against 
^panics. It 
established 
twelve banks 
in money 
centers. The 
South got five 

— Richmond, Atlanta, St. Louis, Kansas City, and Dallas. 

To the North went seven banks. 

600. Two new amendments (1913). The Sixteenth 

and Seventeenth Amendments marked this year. The 

first gave Con- 



gress the right 
to pass an in- 
come tax law. 
Great Britain I 
has had such- 
a law for years 
and there has 
long been talk 
of the need 
of one in the 
United States. 

The other amendment changed the election of United 
States senators from the state legislatures to a vote of 




THE SAME ROAD IMPROVED 



New Political Ideas 451 

the people. This was aimed to prevent "deadlocks" 
in the legislatures and certainly is a more democratic 
way of electing senators (Constitution, Art. I, §3). 

601. War threatens with Mexico (1914-1917). Ever 
since the United States caused the downfall of Maxi- 
milian (§501), relations with Mexico have been very 
friendly. Hundreds of Americans have gone there to 
live, to act as teachers and missionaries, and to carry on 
business. Madero succeeded in driving out Diaz, more 
than thirty years the president, and Huerta, in turn, was 
suspected of murdering Madero. The United States 
refused to recognize Huerta as president. After a year 
had passed some of Huerta's followers insulted our flag. 
They refused to apologize and President Wilson ordered 
troops to occupy the city of Vera Cruz (§358). A 
revolution under Carranza and Villa forced Huerta to 
leave Mexico. Carranza and Villa quarreled. Carranza 
had control of the government, but Villa was able to 
overrun the northern part of the country near the 
United States border. 

A step full of meaning for the Monroe Doctrine was the 
calling of leading men from South America to try to settle 
the Mexican muddle. Representatives from Argentine 
Repubic, Brazil, Chile, Bolivia, and Uruguay met with 
those from the United States and Guatemala. President 
Wilson looked on Carranza as having the best right to 
govern Mexico. Villa's men in great anger crossed the 
border and murdered American citizens. The National 
Guard was called out under orders to guard the border. 
Major- General Funston was in command. General 
Pershing was sent across the border, Carranza agreeing, 
to catch Villa. But the half desert region and the moun- 
tainous character of the country helped Villa to escape. 



452 



The Beginning of Expansion 



While the troops were returning from the border, General 
Funston suddenly died at San Antonio, Texas. 

Thus it appears that President Wilson's plan of 
"watchful waiting" has been a success. At least he has 
kept the two nations from going to war. The people of 
the border states have been stirred up by lawless bands 
who at times have threatened lives and property. 




A DIVISION OF TROOPS ON THE HLNT FOR VILLA 



602. The campaign of 1916. The first great question 
in the campaign was, What will the Progressives do? 
The Republicans nominated Justice Charles J. Hughes of 
the Supreme Court. Roosevelt supported him, but could 
not carry all the Progressives with him. Wilson was 
renominated by the Democrats. The struggle centered 
around our foreign policy, the reforms made during 
Wilson's first term, and the passing by Congress of the 
Adamson law to give railroad laborers more pay. One 
of the taking campaign cries by the Democrats was: 
"He kept us out of waf." 

Wilson won, but the vote was just the opposite of his 
vote in 191 2; a small majority of the electoral vote, and 
a very large popular majority. California gave nearly 
300,000 majority for a Republican senator and a very 



New Political Ideas 453 

small popular vote for Wilson. The result was a small 
Democratic majority in the House of Representatives. 
The Socialist party vote was much smaller. But the Pro- 
hibitionists, led by Hanley of Indiana, greatly increased 
their vote, compared with four years before. Four States 
joined the prohibition column. 

603. The West Indies Purchase. Both Seward and 
Grant had tried to get a foot -hold in the West Indies. 
But when the Great European War broke out our people 
saw the great menace to the United States of having a 
foreign nation right in our door-yard. Therefore Presi- 
dent Wilson purchased the Danish West Indies, consist- 
ing of St. Thomas, St. John and St. Croix for $25,000,000. 
With our authority to protect Cuba, Haiti, Santo 
Domingo and Nicaragua we are made pretty secure. 

604. The rising tide of temperance sentiment. For 
a long time the growth of temperance was very slow, but 
in the last ten years it has been pushing on by leaps and 
bounds. Since the last presidential election the number 
of prohibition States totaled twenty-seven. Congress 
prohibited liquor from being taken into a dry State and 
expelled it from the District of Columbia. Finally (De- 
cember 18, 191 7) it submitted to the states a prohi- 
bition amendment to the constitution^^'' (§621). 

605. The progress of woman suffrage. Another re- 
form, closely connected with the temperance movement, 
is the question of woman suffrage. The struggle of 
women for rights, many of which are now taken as a 
matter of course, is only a little more than half a century 
old. Political rights were first bestowed upon women by 
the territory of Wyoming (1869) and written in the con- 
stitution when it became a State. Colorado (1893) and 
Utah (1896) were the next States to take this step. 

16 



454 Recent Events 

Between 1910 and 1914 seven States and one territory' 
granted full suffrage to women. These were Alaska 
and the seven leading States of the West. East of the 
Mississippi partial suffrage was won in Illinois. Later 
on great campaigns were carried on in the old conserva- 
tive States of New York, Massachusetts, New Jersey, 
and Pennsylvania, but they lost when the question went 
before the people. In 191 7, however, suffrage won in 
New York by a large majority (§622). 

RECENT EVENTS 

THE GREAT EUROPEAN STRUGGLE 

606. The United States tries to be neutral (1914-1917). 

In the summer of 1914 the world's greatest war broke out 
in Europe. Before the war was very old, all the great 
nations of Europe were swept into it. On one side were 
fighting Germany, Austria, Bulgaria, and Turkey under 
the name of the Central Powers; on the other were Bel- 
gium, France, Russia, Great Britain, Serbia, and Italy 
under the name of the Allies. Canada, Australia, South 
Africa, and India, which are parts of the British Empire, 
came to the help of Great Britain. Japan, too, took the 
German forts in China. America declared herself neutral. 
Food products and war materials increased in price as 
we began to send them to Europe. But cotton was hard 
hit by Great Britain's blockade and the cotton growers 
were for a time threatened with bankruptcy. In order to 
meet the loss in money from the failure of European 
nations to send their goods to this country, Congress 
was compelled to pass a "war tax" of over $100,000,000. 
Business improved gradually, as the Allies needed supplies. 

607. How our people acted. A part of our people is 
made up of persons who once lived in the countries that 



The Great European Struggle 



455 



were at war. But the sympathy of Americans came to 
be more and more for the AlHes. 

Pretty soon came the call of the Belgians for help. 
Thousands of their people, old men, women, and children, 



J ,- \\ 









iKrirp"jjjiji7i)ii;f'''n;ni^^™lsai!^^ 




FREIGHT AT THE DOCKS READY FOR SHIPMENT TO EUROPE 

were driven by the advancing Germans from their homes 
and had no food. Millions of money and shiploads of 
provisions were sent to them. In the same generous, 
way our people came to the rescue of the Poles. Later 
came the despairing cry of the Armenians whom the 
Turks had massacred by the hundred thousands. 

Hundreds of doctors, nurses, ambulance drivers, and 
Young Men's Christian Association workers hastened to 
Belgium, England, and France to do their work of mercy. 

608. America has a hard time being neutral. America 
as a neutral was between two fires: Great Britain and 
Germany. Germany became angry because we sold food 



456 Recent Events 

and shells to the Allies and protested vigorously against it . 
The law of nations gives us that right, and the only reason 
we did not sell to Germany was that we could not on 
account of the blockade. In fact we did sell to the 
"Deutschland," a German submarine '^^ which managed 
to get through the British blockade, a full cargo of war 
supplies. 

Germany sent her submarines to break the blockade. 
Suddenly came the news of the sinking of the "Lusi- 
tania." Over 100 American men, women, and children 
were lost. The submarines sank other American ships. 
Germany made answer to our protests that she would 
spare American lives hereafter. 

The British blockade grew tighter and suffering in 
Germany grew greater. Early in 191 7 Germany gave 
notice that she intended to begin a submarine campaign 
without mercy against England. American ships, carry- 
ing millions of trade, were permitted to go to one small 
port in Great Britain. America protested. Other ships 
were sunk and more American lives were lost. America 
must act. Congress was called in extra session, war 
was declared^^- April 6, and $7,000,000,000 voted to 
carry on the struggle. 

609. How the American people turned to war (1917). 
April 6 was a day long to be remembered. On this day 
flags were flung to the breeze and the recruiting officer 
could be seen on every college campus, in every city, and 
on the village greens of the country. 

Both the States and the nation urged farmers to raise 
larger crops than ever before, and people in cities and 
towns were all urged to raise gardens. Even the high- 
school boys and girls were mobilized for work on the 
farm. 



The Great European Struggle 



457 




From a photograpb 
THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH COMMISSIONERS VISIT 
MT. VERNON 



6io. Commissioners from France, England, Russia, 
and Italy. No sooner had we declared war than France 
sent General ^^ ^, ,| |,,-m,_ 



Joffre, the 
hero of the 
Marne, and 
Minister of 
Justice Viviani, 
and Great 
Britain sent 
Foreign Sec- 
retary Balfour 
to talk with 
President 
Wilson about 
America's part 

in the war. Much was said about how France sent 
Lafayette, DeKalb, and Rochambeau to the aid of 
Washington (§201). America was showing that she 
remembered France's favor. 

A great meeting was held at IVlount Vernon. The 
English and French Commissioners met to decorate 
Washington's grave. Balfour paid a touching tribute 
to the man that once humbled the power of his own 
beloved England. Here these three great nations pledged 
themselves anew to stand together in the struggle for 
humanity. The Russian and Italian Commissioners 
came a bit later and received a hearty welcome. 

611. How the American government prepared for 
war. We have seen war declared and money voted to 
carry it on. Among the early acts of Congress was the 
"selective draft" of all men running in age from twenty- 
one to thirty-one. The total number drawn was nearly 



45^ Recent Events 

10,000,000. A part of these were sent into camps, later 
to go to France. 

612. Our first aid to the Allies. We had to train our 
soldiers and therefore could not send them at once. 
But we did send thousands of doctors, nurses, ambulance 






From a photograph 
A Y. M. C. A. HUT AT ONE OF THE U. S. A. CAMPS 

drivers, and Y. M. C. A. men. We did loan our allies 
vast sums of money, did take over the care of the 
Belgians, and did send millions upon millions of tons of 
food to them at once. 

613. How the people aided in the war. One of the 
most democratic measures of this war was the manner 
in which our government raised money. It had already 
heavily increased our taxes. But it needed vast sums 
of money in addition. This money was borrowed from 
the people in a series of Liberty Loans, for which bonds 
were issued. In these loans bonds were issued as low 
as $50 each so that all people could buy. But the most 
democratic of all these loans were the War Savings 
Stamps called "baby bonds" and Thrift Stamps. Part 
of the money thus raised was loaned to our allies. 

Older organizations like the Red Cross'^^ and the Young 
Men's Christian Association, greatly enlarged, took up 



The Great European Struggle 459 

the burden of war. The Red Cross called the women 
of the nation to its aid. They made bandages and 
garments of all sorts for the wounded, and knitted socks, 
sweaters, and other articles by the millions. The Young 
Men's Christian Association has built stations at every 
camp to provide amusements and moral and religious 
instruction for the soldiers. In addition, the Knights of 
Columbus and other organizations are looking after the 
welfare of the soldiers. For each of these organizations 
the people gave outright many millions of money. 

614. Building ships. We had few merchant ships but 
a good navy. Both had to be made many times larger. 
Before this could be done we had to build ship yards in 
every great port from Maine to the Gulf and on the 
Pacific. All this took time. We gained a bit of 'time 
when we seized the many German ships lying in our 
harbor and made them ready for carrying food, muni- 
tions, and soldiers. We placed mines and wire netting 
so as to protect our harbors, and took over the defense 
of the western Atlantic from Canada to Argentina. We 
sent a part of our fleet to Europe to fight the German 
submarine and to aid England in blockading the enemy. 
The navy is steadily growing. We had about 190,000 
officers and men when the United States declared war, 
but before it ended we had over 3,665,000. 

615. Making an army. We had in the beginning a 
Regular Army and a National Guard, but their ranks 
were not full. Both have since been more than doubled 
by men enlisting. Nearly 500,000 were added on the 
first call of the selective draft. We now have the largest 
army ever gathered under the Stars and Stripes. 

In June General Pershing was sent to France with a 
picked body of soldiers. They were received with great 



460 



Recent Events 




rejoicing. Their arrival aroused a new spirit in the 
hearts of the alHes. As fast as men could be trained and 

ships could be found to trans- 
port them, soldiers have been 
added to Pershing's army. 

Everything had to be done 
at once: the enlistment of 
volunteers, the training of 
officers, the preparations for 
the selective draft, and the 
building of cantonments for 
^ the men. In addition rifles, 
,/ ■'''%, machine guns, and cannon 
had to be made and shoes 
and clothes of all kinds had 
to be manufactured. 

616. The aviation fleet. 
This is the first war in which 
airplanes have become a deciding factor. Since the war 
began (1914) great progress has been made in the use of 
airships. In trying to gain the mastery of the air, 
Congress voted $640,000,000 for building an air fleet. 
Schools were established at various colleges for training 
young men, and great aviation fields were located in 
different parts of the country for practice in flying. 
Thousands of young men were trained and were sent to 
Europe in a continuous stream. Once there they received 
the "finishing touch" before entering active service. 

617. Prohibition and food and fuel conservation. 
Already we have seen the gains made by prohibition 
(§380). Congress itself passed and the President signed 
a law prohibiting the manufacture of alcoholic liquors 
during the war. The President has since reduced the 



From a photograph by Clinedinst 
JOHN J. PERSHING 



The Great European Struggle 



461 



amount of alcohol in beer to 2^<( per cent, and Congress 
in December, 1 91 7, passed the Shepard prohibition amend- 
ment to the Constitution. This amendment became a 
part of the Constitution when ratified by three quarters of 
the States. Mississippi was the first State to ratify this 
amendment. Nebraska was the thirty-sixth state (§621). 
We have also seen the progress of woman suffrage. 
The winning of the State of New York by nearly 100,000 




THE STATUS OF WOMAN SUFFRAGE, IQI! 



majority was another great gain (19 17). Woman's work 
in the war has also been a great argument in her favor. 
Finally the House of Representatives, just forty years 
to a day from the time the Susan B. Anthony Amend- 
ment^^^ was first introduced, passed that amendment 
(January 10, 1918). It is named in honor of that first 
great suffragist. 

618. Putting power in the hands of central government. 
Congress debated long before it decided to put the 



462 



Rccents Events 



control of food and fuel into the hands of the President. 
He appointed Herbert C. Hoover'^^ to take charge of the 
food of the country in order to keep down prices and to 
keep food moving so that our allies as well as ourselves 
might be supplied. Certain "wheatless" and certain 
"meatless" days were soon named. 

The President put Harry A. Garfield''^'' in control of the 



i % li-Jf iMs 




PRESIDENT WILSON ADDRESSES CONGRESS 

coal supply. Suddenly in January, Garfield ordered all 
industries east of the Mississippi using coal to shut 
down for five days and thereafter not to begin work on 
Mondays for ten weeks. The purpose was to meet the 
coal shortage. 

Probably the most far-reaching act was the taking 
over of all railroads by the government and the placing 
of Secretary of the Treasury McAdoo in charge as director 
general. 

619. President Wilson speaks to Congress. President 
Wilson spoke to Congress, early in the year 19 18, on the 



The Great European Struggle 463 

terms of peace. Senators and representatives were in 
their seats. Ministers and their wives from foreign 
nations filled the diplomatic gallery. The cabinet and 
the Supreme Court were there. The public crowded the 
galleries set apart for them and standing room was at a 
premium. 

A great hush fell upon the audience as President 
Wilson began to read. It was a message, not for America 
alone, but for the peoples of the whole world. They had 
been listening for such a message from the Great Repub- 
lic and now it came. It breathed hope to struggling 
people everywhere. It proclaimed equality, and justice 
to the weak as well as the strong. It pledged to this end 
the wealth of the nation, the lives of its people, and its 
sacred honor. This message has been called the Magna 
Charta of the world. 

620. The defeat of Germany and her Allies. The de- 
termined stand taken by the United States for worldwide 
liberty and justice was reflected in the splendid heroism 
and devotion of the American army. The battle line in 
France had swayed back and forth through nearly four 
terrible years. Early in the war the Germans almost 
reached Paris. They were defeated in the Battle of the 
Marne (September 6, 19 14) and driven back. In March, 
1918, the Germans began a great drive to break through 
the Allies' lines. They were determined this time to take 
Paris. The Allies were slowly pushed back. The Ger- 
mans again reached the Marne and crossed it. In June, 
191 8, Americans and French struck back. The German 
advance was checked. American marines fought at 
Chateau-Thierry and Belleau Wood. They won new 
laurels of victory. The German line wavered. Suddenly 
the Allies launched a counter offensive (July 18, 191 8). 



464 Recent Events 

Blow after blow fell upon the German lines. From 
the North Sea to the Lorraine frontier, the mighty guns 
thundered. Americans fought and won in many a ter- 
rible battle. The Germans could not withstand the 
assault. City after city fell into the Allies' hands. 
November 7, 191 8, the German chiefs bore the white flag 
to the Allies' lines. The Kaiser abdicated and Germany 
surrendered (November 11, 19 18). 

Meanwhile, the allies of Germany had been forced to 
yield, one after the other. Bulgaria was the first to fall, 
a great defeat in Serbia forcing surrender September 29, 
1918. In Italy, the Austrian armies had been badly 
beaten and Austria surrendered unconditionally (Novem- 
ber 3, 1 91 8). A few days earlier (October 31, 1918) the 
Turks gave up. Their armies had been crushed by the 
British in Palestine and Mesopotamia. 

621. Prohibition amendment adopted (1919). Shortly 
after the United States entered the war, a law was 
passed prohibiting the manufacture of alcoholic liquors 
during the war (§617). Before this, in December, 191 7, 
Congress submitted to the states an amendment to the 
Constitution, entirely suppressing the liquor traffic. 
By November, 191 8, nineteen states had ratified the 
amendment. Ratification by thirty-six states, or three- 
fourths of the entire number, was necessary before the 
amendment became valid as part of the Constitution 
(Constitution, Article V). In January, 1919, the re- 
quired number was reached. The provisions of the 
amendment go into effect one year from the date of rati- 
fication by the thirty-sixth state (January 16, 191 9). 

622. Woman suffrage. A resolution proposing an 
amendment to the Constitution extending the right of 
suffrage to women, was passed (January, 191 8) by the 



The Great European Struggle 465 

House of Representatives. In September, 1918, Presi- 
dent Wilson addressed the Senate in favor of the amend- 
ment. In spite of this, the required number of votes was 
not secured in the Senate. Meanwhile woman suffrage 
was gaining rapidly in the states, particularly in the 
West. By January, 1919, women had won full suffrage 
in Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Mon- 
tana, Nevada, New York, Oregon, Utah, Washington, 
Wyoming, and the territory of Alaska. Twenty-three 
states besides had granted partial suffrage. Champions 
of woman suffrage confidently await victory for their 
cause when the houses of Congress finally agree to submit 
the amendment to the states. 

623. The Peace Conference. When Germany accepted 
the terms proposed by the Allies, plans were immediately 
made for the final peace conference. Great questions 
were to be decided. Such calamities as the World War 
were never again to be permitted. The nations of the 
world would join in a great league pledged to an enduring 
peace and world democracy. Nations, great and small, 
should live on equal terms of liberty and justice with one 
another, assured of political and economic independence, 
and territorial integrity. Nations that had struggled 
through centuries for freedom should at last be emanci- 
pated. Poles, Bohemians, Serbians, Roumanians, Croa- 
tians, Slovenes, Slovaks, Lithuanians, Armenians, and 
all the oppressed peoples of Europe and the world should 
at last secure the opportunity for freedom and self-govern- 
ment. It was to be a most momentous and far-reaching 
conference. 

In November, 1918, President Wilson announced his 
intention to attend the peace meetings. No president 
of the United States had ever before left the country while 



466 Recent Events 

in office. Accompanying the President were the ap- 
pointed delegates of the United States and a large party 
of commissioners, specialists, and assistants. As the 
troopship "George Washington" steamed down the har- 
bor from Hoboken, New Jersey, escorting war vessels fired 
the presidential salute. The battleship "Pennsylvania" 
and five destroyers accompanied the President's ship 
across the ocean. At Brest, where so many thousands 
of American soldiers had landed on their way to the 
battlefront, the people of France welcomed the President 
with the greatest joy and enthusiasm. 

In his reply to the address of welcome by the President 
of France, President Wilson said: "The ties that bind 
France and the United States are peculiarly close. I do 
not know in what other comradeship we could have fought 
with more zest or enthusiasm." 



THE NOTES 

1. The Moors were people who had come into Spain years before from 
Africa. They were not Christians, but worshiped their prophet Moham- 
med and were therefore called Mohammedans. They were kin to the 
Saracens against whom the Crusaders had fought in the Holy Land. They 
were in some ways highly civilized and built some wonderful buildings, 
among them the Alhambra in Spain. But they did not belong in Spain 
and after a hard struggle were driven out. 

2. This was the first time men sailed entirely around the world. Magel- 
lan was seeking a way to the lands in the East. He sailed around South 
America, as Da Gama had sailed around Africa. He did actually reach 
the lands in the East, as Columbus had hoped to do; but the journey 
proved too long to be useful for trade. The Straits of Magellan are named 
after him. He discovered the Philippine Islands and died there. His 
sailors went on until they got back home. 

3. In Mexico and Peru the natives were much more civilized than any 
the Spaniards had yet seen. They had great cities and well built houses 
and even flower gardens. The government was carefully organized. 
There were rules for trading, and judges to enforce them. There was a 
vast amount of gold and silver and the mines were constantly adding to 
it. This proved to be the ruin of the Spaniards for it filled their thoughts 
and led them to plunder the country rather than build it up. They 
forced the natives to work foJ them in the mines. When these men broke 
down, negro slaves were brought from Africa to take their place. But 
there was a brighter side to the picture. With the conquerors were 
some who came, not for gold and silver, but to teach the natives the 
Christian religion. In many spots they set up "Missions." In these 
were a church and a simple school, and perhaps also a rude hospital. 
Near by was a carpenter's bench or a forge, and beyond were cultivated 
fields. Here ceaselessly the missionaries labored to teach the gospel of 
peace and to train as best they could the minds and hands of the natives. 

4. The great quarrel between England and Spain was one of the turn- 
ing points in the world's history. Both nations were proud and powerful. 
Each became jealous of the other. Then they began to differ about reli- 
gious matters. Spain remained Roman Catholic, while England became 
more and more Protestant. The trouble between them increased when 
Spanish plots were discovered against the life of the English queen, 
Elizabeth. On the ocean their sailors clashed. English merchants were 
seeking trade and English war ships fell upon the Spanish treasure ships 
and plundered them. 

Then came the desperate struggle of the Dutch against Spain for their 
freedom. The Dutch were under the power of Spain, but felt themselves 
to be a different nation. They were bold and worked hard. They lived 
on the low lands near the sea, and built great dams along the shore to keep 
the water from washing over them. Protected by these dams they had 
rich farms. Their boats sailed over all the seas carrying their goods for 
sale. They spoke a different language from the Spanish, their blood was 



xiv The Appendix 

different, and they were Protestants in religion. Spain treated them 
cruelly and they revolted. Help was promised them from France, but 
suddenly Coligny and the other Huguenot leaders there were murdered. 
The Dutch now had to look elsewhere. When their leader, William of 
Orange, was assassinated by a Spaniard, Queen Elizabeth sent an army 
to their aid. Spain in her turn sent against England the "Armada," 
the greatest fleet that she had ever possessed. It was defeated by the 
English and almost entirely destroyed. This meant the safety of Eng- 
land, the freedom of the Dutch, and the beginning of the decline of Spain. 
It meant also that Spain would not be strong enough to keep England 
and France out of America. The colonizing of the new world was soon 
to be a great race between the Spanish in the south, the French in the 
north and on the Mississippi River, and the English pushing slowly from 
the Atlantic coast inland. Which had the best position to start from? 

5. Possibly this meant the colonists had gone away to live with the 
Croatan Indians. 

6. It took a great deal of money to found a colony. Settlers had to 
be brought together, and then taken across the ocean. They must have 
supplies to start with. They must be helped until strong enough to take 
care of themselves. Sir Walter Raleigh spent a large fortune in his 
attempts to found colonies. The task was too big for any one man. 
Therefore in 1606 two companies were formed in England to help with the 
work. The London Company was to make settlements in the south and 
the Plymouth Company in the north from the coast inland. (See map 
page 26.) Some men bought stock in these companies because they thought 
it would in time pay them good profits. Others did not expect to make 
money, but thought it patriotic to help. The companies did a good 
work in starting colonization. When the colonies grew stronger, they 
were no longer needed and passed out of existence. 

7. The story of how Smith was condemned to death by Powhatan and 
how he was rescued in dramatic fashion by Pocahontas has been doubted 
by some. 

8. The whole story of colonization in America is closely connected 
with events that were taking place in England. A brief summary of these 
will help the student to follow the story: 

When the great Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, King James I came to 
the throne. He was the first of four kings, all closely akin, who are called 
the "Stuarts." They all liked to rule as they saw fit and without regard 
to what the people wanted. Twice Englishmen rose against them. The 
first time there was a great civil war, King Charles I was beheaded, and 
a sort of republic established which was called "The Commonwealth." 
In this great revolution the leader was Oliver Cromwell. His soldiers 
were deeply in earnest and fought so well that they were called "The 
Ironsides." Cromwell became the ruler, or "Protector," of the Common- 
wealth. He was a strong, stern man, and ruled strictly but well. 

vSoon after Cromwell's death the people called to the throne Charles II, 
the son of the late king. They hoped he would learn a lesson from what 
had befallen his father. But things went from bad to worse, during all 
his reign. He did very much as he pleased. The English people seemed 
willing to put up with many wrongs. But when his brother, James II, 
succeeded him as king, they became more restless and soon rose in revolt 
the second time. Now the revolution was a quick one. William and 
Mary were put in his place, and steps were taken to see that the people 
should have more to do with the government. 



The Appendix XV 

In two ways these events strongly affected American history, (i) The 
Stuarts did not believe in religious freedom and often interfered with it. 
Therefore the Pilgrims and the Puritans sought in America the liberty 
denied them at home. The Catholics found a refuge in Maryland, and 
the Quakers in Pennsylvania and elsewhere. (2) The Stuarts tried to 
rule the people and to raise money from them without their consent. 
This threatened the personal liberty of the Englishmen, which was very 
dear to them. Many came to America for freedom from this tyranny. 
To the new world they brought their idea of English liberty and here 
they guarded it as their most precious possession. 

9. This law forbade goods to be brought into England or her colonies 
in any except English or colonial ships. Its purpose was to keep the 
Dutch ship owners from carrying things to and from the English colonies. 

10. See note 8. 

11. In France the Protestants were called "Huguenots." They 
followed the teaching of the great reformer John Calvin. They struggled 
hard and long for the right to worship as they chose in their own country 
and tried also to found a colony in America where they could have religious 
freedom. In both attempts fortune seemed against them. In America 
the Spaniards destroyed their colony. At home their great leader Coligny 
and thousands of others were slain in the Massacre of St. Bartholomew 
(1572). Their hopes rose when Henry IV, who had once been a Huguenot, 
came to the throne and issued the famous Edict of Nantes (1598). This 
gave them the right to worship in their own way. It worked well for many 
years. The Huguenots increased in number. They were industrious, 
they were skilled in many lines of work, and some of them were great 
scholars. But their ways were too independent to please King Louis XIV, 
who wished everybody to do just as he said. He therefore recalled the 
Edict of Nantes (1685), and forbade the Huguenots to worship in their 
own way. Those who continued to do so were treated with terrible 
cruelty. Thousands of Huguenots left the country. This was a mis- 
fortune for France but a gain for America. They came to many of our 
colonies, but especially to South Carolina. Their influence on our history 
has been very strong. 

12. See note 8. 

13. See note 8. 

14. See note 4. 

15. The people of Holland, whom we call the Dutch, were great mer- 
chants. After they won their independence from Spain (see note 4, page 
17), their trade increased greatly. The Dutch ships could be seen on all 
the seas and were great rivals of the English. While Cromwell was Pro- 
tector of England, a law designed to keep English trade out of the hands 
of the Dutch merchants was passed. It was called the "Navigation Act" 
(1651). It forbade goods to be brought into England or into the English 
colonies in any ships except English ones or those of the country from which 
they came. This was a sharp blow at the Dutch, whose ships had been 
carrying a great deal of these goods. As the two countries were jealous of 
each other, this and other troubles soon brought on war between them. 

The Dutch were proud of their navy, and they had reason to be so. 
Their Admiral Van Tromp fastened a broom to his mast head and said be 
would sweep the English from the seas. But the English fleet under 
Blake, "The Sea King," as he was called, fought with equal bravery and 
skill. The Dutch were at last forced to make peace (1653). Cromwell 
was glad to see the war end, for the Dutch were Protestants, and he liked 



xvi The Appendix 

them for that reason. But King Charles II had no such fecHng towards 
them, and the war began again (1664). An EngHsh fleet seized the Dutch 
possessions in America (1664), and they became from that time a part of 
the EngHsh colonies. 

16. The Duke of York and Albany was the brother of King Charles II, 
and later became King James II (1685). 

17. Two things helped to make the Dutch contented under English 
rule, (i) They were given representative government and enjoyed more 
freedom than before. (2) William, who had formerly been the ruler of 
Holland, now came to the English throne and therefore became their 
king. 

18. Gustavus Adolphus was a famous king of Sweden. He was a 
brilliant general. He kept his soldiers under the strictest discipline and 
punished wickedness and disorder severely. He lived very simply. It 
is said that neither gold nor silver was ever seen in his tent. 

19. It is clear why England persecuted Quakers. In that age of war, 
the authorities of England thought it dreadful for a man to refuse to fight 
for his country. To men living under kings and queens it seemed a great 
insult to them not to remove your hat in their presence and to call them 
by the words "thee" and "thou." 

20. Between 1753 and 1769 over two dozen boys and young men from 
Charleston alone were in London for their education. 

21. In the days of Queen Elizabeth Spain was the great rival of Eng- 
land. But after the Armada was defeated, her power waned. Then 
brave littlt Holland threatened England's trade and became her rival on 
the sea. But when WiHiam and Mary came to the throne in 1688, the 
rivalry shifted again. William was already ruler of Holland when he was 
chosen king of England. The two countries now had a common interest. 
The English began to look on France as their great rival. France was not 
then a great free country as it is to-day. It was ruled by King Louis XIV, 
who thought the people had no rights. He said, "I am the state," and 
claimed that he got his power not from his sulDJects, but directly from 
God. He was ruling as the Stuarts tried to rule in England. When 
James II fled from England, Louis welcomed him and helped him in his 
attempts to recover the English throne. This angered the English people. 
They soon began to fear Louis's growing power. He lived in splendor, 
fine courtiers crowded about him, and he made great plans to control all 
Europe. He fought against the Dutch and arranged to have his grandson 
made king of Spain. If his plans succeeded England would soon be at his 
mercy. 

Of course the result was war between England and France. This was 
the first of a long series of wars which they fought. New quarrels 
arose which brought in other nations. At times all Europe was fighting. 
Even in far-away India the great Englishman Clive won a victory over the 
French and laid the foundation of the present British Empire there. In 
America the English won Canada from the French and Florida from Spain. 
Their great success was due largely to the genius of their wonderful leader 
William Pitt. But all who lived in England and all who lived in her 
colonics felt that they had a share in it and took pride in being Englishmen. 

22. King George I was in blood partly British and partly Gemian. 
His mother was the granddaughter of King James I. His father was the 
ruler of Hanover, a German country. He was himself ruling Hanover 
when called to the English throne. The Act of Settlement (1689) had 
arranged as to just who should succeed to the English throne in the future. 



The Appendix xvii 

Queen Anne had followed William and Mary. Now came George I. 
He spoke English very poorly, and relied on the leading men to guide 
him, especially on Walpole. 

23. See note 86. 

24. See note 8. 

25. See note 8. 

26. The Virginia preachers were paid for their services in tobacco. 
The Burgesses reduced the "parsons'" salaries, but George III vetoed 
the law. They sued for their salaries and Patrick Henry took the side 
opposed to the parsons and in favor of the people. He won, and the 
people carried him out of the court room on their shoulders. 

27. In this Parliament the Rockingham Whigs were in control. Ed- 
mund Burke was their leading statesman. 

28. On Saturday, the 15th of October, 1774, the brig "Peggy Stewart" 
arrived at Annapolis from London with two thousand three hundred 
twenty-eight pounds of tea among other goods consigned to Thomas C. 
WiUiams and Company of Annapolis. The attempted importation was 
discovered by the citizens and at a mass meeting severe censure was passed 
on the importing firm and on Mr. Anthony Stewart, owner of the vessel, 
who had paid the duties on the "detestable plant," as it was called. A 
committee was formed to prevent the landing of the tea, by force, if 
necessary. Now fully aware of their error, the members of the Williams's 
firm and Mr. Stewart offered an apology to the citizens in the following 
terms : 

"We, James Williams, Joseph Williams, and Anthony Stewart, do 
severally acknowledge that we have committed a daring insult, an 
act of the most pernicious tendency to the Hberties of America; we, the 
said Williamses, in importing the tea, and said Stewart, in paying the duty 
thereon, and thereby deservedly incurred the displeasure of the people 
now convened, and all others interested in the preservation of the consti- 
tutional rights and hberties of North America, do ask pardon for the same; 
and we solemnly declare, for the future, that we never will infringe any 
resolution formed by the people for the salvation of their rights . . . and 
we will commit to the flames, or otherwise destroy, as the people may 
choose, the detestable article which has been the cause of this our mis- 
conduct." 

The offer to destroy the tea, however, was not enough to quiet the 
indignation of the citizens, and the agitation continued until Mr. Stewart, 
with the advice of Charles Carroll of CarroUton, proposed to sacrifice his 
valuable property by setting fire himself to the vessel, cargo and all. 
This received the approval of the citizens and he was immediately rowed 
out to the ship with several other gentlemen. There having directed that 
the "Peggy Stewart" be run aground, he set fire to it, and in a few hours 
the brig was destroyed. 

29. The first prayer in Congress. Paul Revere had brought stirring 
news from Boston. Samuel Adams, the old Puritan, arose and said: 
" Mr. Chairman, we ought to have some one open our meeting with prayer. 
I can hear prayer from any one who is a lover of his country. I move 
that the Congress hear prayers read by the Reverend Mr. Duche. " He 
was an Episcopalian. 

30. John Randolph called them "minutemen," declaring that they 
"were raised in a minute, armed in a minute, fought in a minute, and van- 
quished the enemy in a minute." 

31. The Pretender was so called because he was fighting for the place 



xviii The Appendix 

of king, once held by his grandfather, James II (§69), but held (1745) by 
George II. 

32. George III had to hire these Hessians from Germany because 
Englishmen refused to enlist in a war against "our American brethren." 
All told there were about 17,000 Hessians. 

33. While most Americans were hesitating, Thomas Paine wrote a 
little book which he called "Common Sense." In it he argued that 
independence was the only remedy for our troubles. He wrote very 
clearly and simply. The book was widely read and led many people to 
favor independence. 

34. In this famous document Jefferson lays on King George the chief 
blame for the wrongs done to the colonies. Students would do well to 
read his list of charges against the king. 

35. This quotation is inscribed on the Liberty Bell, which still hangs 
in the Old State House in Philadelphia. The bell is not used because 
it is cracked, but it is in great demand for expositions. It was in Chicago 
at the Columbian Exposition and made the trip to San Francisco to honor 
the great exposition held in 191 5. 

36. The liberty-loving people in the various nations of Europe wel- 
comed the new nation with open arms. The French were struggling 
against the despotic rule of Louis XIV and their discontent found expres- 
sion in aid to the Americans. Poland, which was then at the dark moment 
of its history after its first partition by the powers that surrounded it, 
turned to America for inspiration in its struggle. The Dutch Republic 
was in sympathy with America. In England itself the people recognized 
that the Declaration of Independence was not directed against the people 
of England and Parliament. It was directed against their king alone 
and in fact supported their own grievances. The English people felt 
that their own liberties were in as much danger as the liberties of America, 
and men like William Pitt (now Lord Chatham), Edmund Burke, Isaac 
Barre, and John Wilkes had openly supported the colonists in their de- 
mands. So the new nation embarked on its perilous undertaking, assured 
of the sympathies at least of the liberty-loving people of other nations 
in Europe. 

37. It is estimated that almost 40,000 Loyalists fled to Canada and 
New Brunswick. Their property in the United States was confiscated 
and Congress refused to give them any compensation. Great Britain, 
however, gave the refugees large grants of land in Canada and New 
Bnmswick and in many cases generous grants of money. Upper Canada 
thus received a large influx of settlers. This was much desired by England 
in order to offset the large majority of French in the Canadian provinces. 
(See page 236, note 86.) 

38. Before the battle, Admiral Howe offered a pardon to all Americans. 
It came fresh from the king, but Howe had "forgotten" how to address 
a letter and sent it to: "George Washington, Esq." Personally Wash- 
ington did not care for the title, hut Congress had given it to him. He 
returned the letter unopened. It' came again. This time it read: "Gen- 
eral George Washington." Washington made a polite answer: that the 
Americans needed no pardon since they had done no wrong. 

39. When Howe reached New York, Washington's rear guard had not 
left, and was in great danger. A bright woman, Mrs. Murray, turned 
the tide by inviting General Howe to stop and lunch with her in her 
splendid home. Two hours spent in the company of this charming 
woman, whom Howe thought a Loyalist, and the rear guard got out safely. 



The Appendix xix 

40. Captain Nathan Hale when at Harlem Heights volunteered to 
bring Washington news of British plans. He disguised himself as a school 
teacher, which he once had been, went to New York, sketched plans of 
forts and gathered facts. About to return, he was discovered, arrested, 
and condemned as a spy to hang. He declared: "I only regret that I 
have but one life to give to my country." 

41. Washington had left his rear guard at Trenton to keep the fires 
burning and to make all the noise they could. He wished to give the 
impression that he was preparing for battle. 

42. The development of the American flag can be traced in flags that 
had previously appeared in the colonies. There were also a number of 
very popular flags which had no part in the development of the Star^ 
Spangled Banner. Thus in 1775 a favorite flag device in the South con- 
sisted of a picture of a rattlesnake with the words "Don't tread on me," 
and Patrick Henry's saying: "Liberty or Death." This device appeared 
sometimes on a yellow flag, sometimes on a flag of red and white stripes. 
Colonel Moultrie, when he defended his fort at Charleston against the 
British fleet in June, 1776, used a blue flag with a white crescent in the 
upper corner next the flag-pole, and the word "Liberty" in large white 
letters. This was the flag replaced on the ramparts by Sergeant Jasper 
(§181). The pine tree was also a favorite flag device of the colonists. 

But the flag that was used in the development of the Stars and Stripes 
was the red ensign of England. This consisted of a red field with the 
united crosses of St. George and St. Andrew in the canton. At Taunton, 
Massachusetts, the patriots displayed this flag. But on the red field 
appeared in bold white letters the words "Liberty and Union." When 
Washington took command of the troops besieging Boston he raised a 
flag expressing the same spirit as the flag at Taunton, but instead of the 
words "Liberty and Union," the red field of the ensign had been divided 
into thirteen alternate red and white stripes. The united crosses of 
Great Britain still appeared in the canton. The colonists still hoped 
for reconciliation with the mother country and recognition of their rights 
as Englishmen. They did not yet seek complete separation. 

The events of the next few months, however, made it clear to the 
patriots that there was no hope of conciliation with a king like George HI, 
nor any relief from his tyranny without complete independence. In 
June, 1777, Congress formally adopted the Stars and Stripes as the flag 
of the new nation. Its field consisted of thirteen alternate red and white 
stripes. In the canton, in place of the united crosses of St. George and 
St. Andrew appeared thirteen white stars on a blue field. A year before 
its formal adoption by Congress, a flag of this design had been made by 
Betsy Ross at the request of a committee consisting of General Wash- 
ington, Robert Morris, and George Ross. It is said that General Wash- 
ington himself invented the design. 

At Fort Stanwix, in August, 1777, the brave defenders received news 
of the adoption of the new flag, and immediately raised a rude banner 
made of a white shirt, a blue jacket, and strips from a red petticoat. This 
was the first appearance of the flag in battle and in victory. 

43. Arnold was the hero of Saratoga. A wounded German, lying on 
the ground, shot Arnold and shattered the leg wounded at Quebec. An 
American made for the wounded soldier to run him through with his bayo- 
net. Arnold cried: "For God's sake don't hurt him! He's a fine fellow!" 
What a hero Arnold would have been had he died in this battle ! Burgoyne 
said to Morgan, "Sir, you command the finest regiment in the world!" 



XX The Appendix 

44. Americans have not forgotten the debt they owe to France for 
her helj). During the recent great war in Europe France in Jier turn called 
to them for help and they eagerly gave it. General Pershing voiced their 
feeling. Standing at the grave of Lafayette he said, "Lafayette, we are 
here." 

In England, as well as in America, the plans of George III failed. Her 
king now has little power. She is a free, self-go\'crning country. To-day 
she stands side by side with her old opponents, America and France, in 
defense of human liberty and justice. As a mark of friendship England 
and France now join with America in celebrating our fourth of July. 

45. Howe in the city was enjoying a round of gayeties — theaters, 
balls, parties, gambling, cock fighting, and horse racing. Franklin wrote 
from Paris: "Howe has not taken Philadelphia but Philadelphia has 
taken Howe." 

46. Unfortunately Lee had been exchanged. He was tried by a- 
court-martial for his conduct at Monmouth, and dismissed from the 
service. 

47. This city is named for Wilkes, who fought that hard battle with 
George III over Writs of Assistance or general search warrants; London 
took up his cause, elected him alderman, sheriff, and finally Lord Mayor 
of London; and for Barre, who was an Irish soldier who in a fine burst of 
eloquence declared that the Americans were true Sons of Liberty. 

48. In the fall a boatload of settlers started for Nashville, going down 
the Tennessee to the Ohio and up the Cumberland to the fort. One day 
the Indians attacked the boat from the shore. The men seized their 
rifles to defend the women and children. Brave Mary Gower, just a girl, 
then grasped the rudder and guided the boat into the middle of the river, 
although she herself was badly wounded. 

49. The most daring of these leaders was Francis Marion, a Huguenot 
by birth. Marion was called the " Swamp Fox " by the British. One day 
he invited a British officer to dine with him. Marion's colored servant 
brought on pieces of bark a number of roasted sweet potatoes. The officer 
expressed his astonishment and went back and resigned his position, 
declaring that it was useless to fight against such men who would starve 
and still fight for liberty. 

Thomas Sumter, the "Carolina Game Cock," was only a bit behind 
Marion in boldness and the number of his daring deeds. His name was 
given to the famous old fort in Charleston harbor. He was a statesman, 
became a United States senator, and was sent to Brazil as our Minister. 
He lived until 1832. 

50. The people of South Carolina, loving De Kalb's memory and 
admiring his heroic deeds, erected on Camden battle field a monument 
to honor his name. Lafayette on his last visit to America (1824) laid its 
corner stone. 

51. On the monument to the signers of the Mecklenburg Declaration 
there is chiseled a hornet's nest to commemorate the saying of Cornwallis. 

52. The father of General Robert E. Lee, the commander of the Con- 
federate army in the War between the States. 

53. Tarleton was not permitted to forget his fight with Washington. 
In conversation one day he remarked that he had never had the pleasure 
of seeing Colonel Washington. A Whig lady present said: "If you had 
only looked behind you at the Battle of Cowpens, you might have had that 
pleasure." On another occasion Tarleton made the sneering remark that 
he understood Washington was so ignorant that he could not write his 



The Appendix xxi 

own name. The lady to whom he was talking repHed, looking at his 
wounded hand: "You certainly carry proof that he can at least make 
his mark." 

54. Lord North, who had supported the English king in his policy 
toward America, was forced out of office, and Lord Rockingham, sup- 
ported by such friends of America as Charles Fox, Henry Conway, and 
Edmund Burke, took the office of premier. Lord Rockingham died 
three months later, but the new premier. Lord Shelburne, did not change 
the peace policy of the ministry, and the friends of America were able 
to continue their work. 

55. A provisional peace treaty was signed November 30, 1782. But 
the final treaty was not signed until September 3, 1783. Complications 
with France and Spain, as well as another change of ministry in England 
in February, 1783, were cause for the delay. France was closely bound 
to America by treary and was also at war with England. Spain was at 
war with England and was allied with France. France and Spain had 
important interests in the New World. Thus it was necessary for England 
to arrange matters with France and Spain, before the peace with America 
could be concluded. On the same day that the treaty with America was 
signed, England also signed treaties with France and Spain. 

56. An interesting episode which promised to be serious was the 
suggestion of the French minister that the treaty set aside the region south 
of the Cumberland River and west of the Allegheny Mountains for the 
Indians, and that Spain have control over this region. The Americans 
would not listen to such a proposal. 

57. The date is November 25, 1783. This date is often celebrated as 
Evacuation Day by the citizens of New York. 

58. Washington announced at the beginning that he intended to serve 
without pay, but that he would keep an accurate account of his expenses. 

59. A letter from a young lady who was at Mount Vernon says: "The 
general and madame came home Christmas Eve, and such a racket the 
servants made, for they were all glad of their coming. . . . All Christmas 
afternoon people came to pay their respects to them. . . . The general 
seemed very happy and Mistress Washington was busy from daybreak 
making everything as agreeable as possible for everybody." 

60. Cincinnatus was a great Roman general who, after he had won his 
victories, left the army and returned to his farm. 

61. Benjamin Franklin had the ability to express his wisdom in a way 
that would grip the people's attention and remain indelibly in their 
memories. He printed in his newspaper, published in Philadelphia, a car- 
toon of a snake cut in pieces, each section representing a colony or group of 
colonies. Below the snake were the words "Unite or Die." There is a 
popular superstition that a snake cut in pieces will grow whole and live 
again if the pieces are put together quickly. Thus Franklin made clever 
use of this superstition to influence public opinion. At the same time he 
awakened a patriotic feeling by calling to mind the cherished snake device 
used in flags of the early days of the revolution. 

62. Both Charles Pinckney and Alexander Hamilton proposed plans. 
Pinckney's plan strongly resembled the Virginia proposal, drawn up by 
Madison and brought forward at the convention by Edmund Randolph. 
Hamilton's plan proposed the establishment of a strongly centralized 
government, providing for a president and a senate, all to hold office for 
life. The original manuscript of Pinckney's plan has been lost, but«it 
is known that it contained many suggestions for features which were later 



xxii The Appendix 

agreed upon by tlie convention. Pinckney is also credited with the author- 
ship of a large number (jf the provisions of the constitution as finally 
accepted. 

63. A growing demand has arisen for the election of the president for 
one term of six years without reelection. This plan was followed by the 
Confederate States in making a constitution. 

64. Bills of Rights had been placed in the state constitutions to protect 
the rights of persons and property. The greatest Bill of Rights was 
passed by Parliament in 1688. Nearly all the American Bills of Rights 
are copied from the English bill. 

65. In two important respects the Constitution differed from the Con- 
federation, (i) It gave Congress the right to raise money by taxes, 
instead of begging it from the states. (2) It gave the President the power 
to enforce the laws made by Congress. These two changes greatly in- 
creased the strength of the Central government. 

66. The Constitution was to go into effect if nine states adopted it. 
New Hampshire was the ninth. Virginia acted several days later, but 
her action attracted more attention as the fight there had been a hard one. 

By the end of July all the thirteen states had ratified except North 
Carolina and Rhode Island. These wished some changes made in the 
Constitution. They finally adopted it a little later. 

67. Washington naturally loved dignity and show, not for their own 
sake but because he thought the office of president ought to command 
respect. When he and Mrs. Washington held receptions the President 
was clad in black velvet. He wore knee breeches, and his hair was pow- 
dered and drawn into a silken bag. In one hand he held a cocked hat, and 
at his side swung a sword in a white scabbard. He bowed very stiffly to 
everybody, but shook hands with no one. He often drove along the 
streets in a fine coach drawn hy four white horses with footmen in bright 
uniforms. These things led some persons to charge that Washington 
was aiming to turn the government into a monarchy. 

68. This uprising and its result has been regarded as a test of the 
strength of the new government. In Western Pennsylvania and other 
distant communities, the settlers condensed their grain into alcohol, 
because the bad roads and lack of transportation made it difficult to bring 
the grain to market at the seaboard. This distilled liquor came to be the 
main product of the western farms, and was even used in trading in the 
place of money. The settlers regarded the tax as unfair. Meetings were 
held in Western Pennsylvania settlements, the tax collectors were defied, 
and there were several riots in which property was destroyed. An 
attempt was made by the government to induce the people to obey the 
law. But when Washington realized that peaceable methods were unsuc- 
cessful, he called for troops. In a short time a force of fifteen thousand 
men was on the way across the mountains. Hamilton accompanied the 
expedition, for he was eager to prove the strength of the new government. 
As the army came near the scene of the trouble, the settlers realized the 
determination of the government 'to assert its rights. They scattered, 
and the rebellion was at an end. From that time on the tax was collected 
without difficulty. 

69. The French king, Louis XVI, lived in splendor, surrounded by 
nobles, as his grandfather, Louis XIV, had done. (vSee note 21.) But 
the people of France had no share in the fine life at the king's court, 
and no voice in the government. Many of them were desperately poor, 
and their taxes were very heavy. Something had to be done for them; 



The Appendix xxiii 

but what? IVlen spoke of freedom and equality. Were the people to 
have them, or were they only to dream about them? 

Just then came our American Revolution, and our struggle for freedom. 
It touched the French heart. They welcomed our Benjamin Franklin, and 
their LaFayette came to us. They helped us with men and money and ships. 

Soon afterwards came their revolution in France. On July 14, 1789, 
the storm burst, and the Bastille, the great political prison of France, 
fell into the hands of the discontented people. "Why," said the king, 
"this is a revolt." "No," replied the messenger, "it is a revolution." 
He was right. It marked the beginning of tremendous changes that were 
to follow one another quickly. Soon the king was imprisoned. Then he 
was beheaded. A republic was set up. War followed against England 
and other nations. Genet was sent to seek our aid. 

In America the friends of France watched eagerly the progress of the 
new republic. But they were doomed to disappointment. The French 
people then had little experience in managing a state. Their leaders 
lacked practical wisdom. They fell to quarreling. Blood flowed freely. 
Things went from bad to worse, and soon there was a "Reign of Terror." 

At last Napoleon Bonaparte, a young artillery officer, appeared on the 
scene. He brought order out of confusion. He organized the French 
armies. He led them to wonderful victories over nearly all of Europe. 
He was a great military genius, but he was a despot. 

England was his chief opponent. During their long struggle we tried 
to remain neutral, but found it more and more difficult to do so. Our 
commerce suffered from both sides. But as England had the strongest 
fleet, our ships felt her strength most. Finally to the regret of many 
Americans we found ourselves at war with her. We were not fighting 
for Napoleon, but for the freedom of our trade and of our sailors. We 
did not realize then as fully as we do now how desperately England was 
struggling for the liberty of the world, and how hard it was for her under 
those conditions to get our view-point or to understand our claims. 

70. The changes in the French Revolution had been rapid, and Gendt 
did not dare go back to France, so he did the next best thing — went to 
New York and married an accomplished American woman. One of 
Genet's grandsons went to France to fight at the breaking out of the 
European War (1914). 

71. Napoleon said to -some Americans: "Ah, gentlemen . . . the 
measure of his fame [Washington's] is full. Posterity will talk of him with 
reverence as the founder of a great empire, when my name shall be lost 
in the vortex of revolutions." 

72. The electoral college was carried by the Republicans, Jefferson 
and Burr each receiving seventy-three votes. Adams received sixty-five 
Federalist votes. The duty of choosing between Jefferson and Burr 
went to the House of Representatives. The House was controlled by 
the Federalists. They threatened to elect Burr, who had been selected 
by the Republicans for the vice-presidency. He had not been considered 
as a choice for the highest office. To elect him would be an embarrassment 
to the Republicans, who regarded Jefferson alone as their leader. The 
balloting in the House continued for days without a decision. Two 
states, Vermont and Maryland, remained divided. Hamilton saw that 
the will of the people was for Jefferson. He believed Jefferson to be the 
better of the two men. He advised the two divided states to cast their 
votes for Jefferson. The final vote, on the thirty-sixth ballot, was ten 
states for Jeffei;son and six for Burr. 



xxiv The Appendix 

73. Jefferson was a descendent of the landed aristocracy of Virginia, 
in every way cultivated and refined. His mother belonged to one of 
the most prominent colonial families, the Randolphs. His father was an 
independent country gentleman with large land holdings. His education 
was of the best and his ardent taste and ability for mathematics and 
science as well as the liberal arts made him the associate of the foremost 
scholars of his time, both American and foreign. He was a good singer, 
expert violinist, and exceptionally skilled in all outdoor sports. 

74. The seat of government was moved from Philadelphia to Wash- 
ington during the administration of John Adams. The place for the city 
had been selected by Washington and the land given by Virginia and 
Maryland. 

75. Aaron Burr had been driven out of the Republican party, had been 
defeated for governor of New York by Hamilton's influence, and had 
killed Hamilton in a duel (1804). He had become an outcast for his crime, 
and was planning to take the wild spirits among the frontiersmen down 
the Mississippi to form an empire in the Southwest. Jefferson ordered his 
arrest. He was captured in southern Alabama, taken to Richmond, and 
tried for treason, but was set free. 

76. Arkansas had been crossed by De Soto (1541), and was first settled 
by the French. It was under Spanish control, then French again, and 
finally fell to the United States by the Louisiana Purchase (1803). It was 
at first a part of Louisiana Territory but later was given to Missouri 
Territory (1812). Arkansas Territory, including Indian Territory, was 
estabHshed in 1819. The capital was Little Rock (1820). From the 
standpoint of national politics the admission of Arkansas (1836) balanced 
Michigan (1837) on the slavery question. The men of Arkansas bore 
an honorable part in the Mexican War. Her people divided almost two 
to one on the question of secession (i860), but the next year her convention 
voted for dissolving the Union with but one dissenting vote. By the 
census of i860 the State had over 435,000 people. 

77. Frequent naval engagements took place in the war with Tripoli 
and a number of Tripolitan pirate boats were destroyed. The American 
cruiser "Philadelphia" struck a reef in the harbor of Tripoli while pur- 
suing a pirate gunboat. A number of Tripolitan gunboats attacked the 
helpless frigate and forced it to surrender. Stephen Decatur was a young 
lieutenant in the American expedition. One night he ran into the harbor 
on a small boat named the "Intrepid." He had determined that the 
Tripolitans should not keep the American frigate. It should be destroyed. 
In the darkness the "Intrepid" ran alongside the "Philadelphia." Deca- 
tur's men swarmed over the frigate's sides. The pirates in the boat 
hastily plunged into the water and made for shore. In half an hour 
Decatur had placed powder in every part of the ship, and the fuses were 
alight. Back to the "Intrepid" rushed the Americans, and as the "In- 
trepid" sailed out of the harbor the "Philadelphia" burst with a great 
roar and sank. No pirate flag shovild float over an American ship. 

Some time later it was decided to send the "Intrepid" into the harbor 
of Tripoli again, this time loaded with powder and shot. It was to be 
blown up so as to do the most damage to the enemy boats in the harbor. 
A crew of thirteen men were selected to take the ship into the harbor. 
They were to light the fuses and escape in small boats. A thick haze 
spread over the water. The "Intrepid" entered the harbor safely. Just 
then the enemy batteries discovered her and opened fire. A few minutes 
later a great column of fire shot up and the "Intrepid" was rent by a 



. The Appendix xxv 

tremendous explosion. An observer on an American ship outside the 
harbor said that just before the explosion he had seen the light of a torch 
move across the deck and disappear below. The brave crew had blown 
up the ship, knowing it meant certain death without hope of escape. 

78. The duties imposed by the original bill were very low when com- 
pared with those of the present day. The average rate was about eight 
per cent, and the highest not over fifteen per cent. But it was found 
necessary, shortly after the passage of the first bill, to raise the rate, and 
ever since frequent alterations and readjustments of rates have been 
made, according to conditions abroad and at home. To-day (1919) the 
rate ranges as high as sixty per cent, the average being in the neighborhood 
of twenty per cent. 

79. See note 69.. 

8o- The Milan Decree of Napoleon declared that every vessel, comply- 
ing with the British order that it should first touch at an English port and 
pay reexportation duties to England, was "denationalized" and subject 
to seizure. If a French cruiser stopped an American vessel and suspected 
it was going to England, it was immediately seized and sent to a French 
port. But the French navy was small. The Battle of the Nile in 1798, 
and the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 had broken the naval power of France 
and, though Napoleon had many battle ships building, few were sent 
out on the high seas. The seizures, both French and English, were made 
mostly by privateers licensed by the warring powers. As a result of the 
French and English blockade decrees, American trade soon came to a 
standstill. Tens of thousands of sailors and workmen were thrown out 
of employment, and the business of thousands of merchants was ruined. 

81. An odd fact relating to the Embargo was Napoleon's conduct in 
assisting his friend Jefferson to enforce the act. He seized, it is said, over 
two hundred vessels. 

82. Henry Clay was elected speaker of the House of Representatives. 
His position as speaker gave him great power. The speaker not only 
presides but makes up the committees so as to get the laws he or his party 
wants. For more than a hundred years the speaker had this power, 
but it is now in the hands of a committee. 

83. Michigan, the fourth State carved out of the Old Northwest, 
came into the Union in 1837. The French first saw this region in 1634. 
Father Marquette founded a mission at Sault Sainte Marie (1668). The 
French also settled Detroit (1701). Pontiac tried to massacre the whites 
in this region (1763). The victories of General Wayne (1795) and General 
Harrison (181 1 and 1814) over the Indians had a great effect in restoring 
the authority of the United States. The completion of the Erie Canal 
in 1825 opened up Michigan to the East and settlers came in large numbers. 
Three years after its admission as a State the people numbered over 
212,000. Senator Lewis Cass, the most famous man in the early history 
of the State, was followed by Senator Zach Chandler at the time of the 
great struggle between the North and the South. 

84. Tecumseh was a great orator and a noble Indian, fighting for his 
hunting grounds. He did not permit the Indians to massacre their 
prisoners. "Begone," cried Tecumseh to the British general who looked 
on at a massacre. "You are not fit to command; go and put on petti- 
coats." He told his braves that he would fall at the battle of the Thames. 
Colonel Richard M. Johnson of Kentucky, a relative of one of the authors, 
was said to have killed Tecumseh in a hand-to-hand fight. The colonel 
never denied the fact. 



XXVI 



The Appendix 



85. On account of the smoke of battle and the darkness of the night 
Key could not see the flag flying over Fort McHenry. During these 
troubled moments he began writing the "Star-Spangled Banner," which 
is our national song. In the morning the flag was still flying, and he 
finished the hymn. 

86. During this century of peace we have been so closely bound to 
Canada that a brief survey of its history' is almost necessary for American 
history students. 

What we now call Canada was first explored and settled by the French. 
After the wars between the English and the French it passed into the hands 
of England (1763). But its people were still largely French. They had 
often fought against the English colonists further vSouth, and could not 




THE DOMINION OF CANADA 



be expected to join with them in their Revolutionary war. Therefore 
when these became an independent nation, they remained a part of the 
British empire. 

English settlers, meanwhile, were moving in. They made their homes 
chiefly along the Great Lakes. This part was called Upper Canada. 
The old French remained along the St. Lawrence River. This section was 
called Lower Canada. Each had its own legislature, but the governor was 
appointed by England. Of course this gave trouble, as it had done in 
our own colonies. There were bitter quarrels, and then came fighting. 

England now sent over Lord Durham to find out what was wrong and 
the best way to right it. He advised that the people of Canada be given 
full control over their affairs. He urged that Upper and Lower Canada 
and the other British colonies near by should be united under one govern- 
ment. These ideas were gradually carried put. At last in 1867 Quebec 



The Appendix xxvii 

(Lower Canada), Ontario (Upper Canada), New Brunswick, and Nova 
Scotia were united in a confederation called the "Dominion of Canada." 
As the country has grown, other provinces have been added to it. New- 
foundland alone remains a separate colony. 

87. Hamilton's bank had but $7,000,000 capital, while Aladison's 
had five times as much, three fifths in government stocks. 

88. Richard Arkwright, an English barber, was the first (1769) to 
devise a spinning machine, that would prove successful commercially. 
His patent was based on previous inventions, those of Lewis Paul, John 
Wyatt, Thomas Highs, and others. James Hargreaves, in 1764, invented 
the spinning jenny and in 1769 Samuel Crompton united the best points 
of Paul's and Hargraeves' machines in a device of his own. The inven- 
tions of Paul Arkwright, Hargreaves, and Crompton are the basis of all 
modern spinning machinery. 

The first successful power looms, or weaving machine, was invented by 
Edmund Cartwright, an English clergyman, in 1785. Cartwright invented 
other machinery. In 1809, the English government granted him nearly 
fifty thousand dollars as a reward for his inventions. 

89. Maritime and commercial states, especially, which suffered more 
from the effects of the embargo than the agricultural states, turned to 
manufacturing. The textile industry was particularly favored. Much 
money that would have been invested under ordinary conditions in ship- 
ping, was put into cotton mills. The New England states were foremost 
in this industry. Iron manufactures also developed. The discovery of 
anthracite coal aided this industry. Other products were woolen goods, 
paper, leather, wood products, hats, glass, and tin and brass products. 

The total value of manufactured goods in America in 1810 was esti- 
mated at almost $200,000,000. Of this amount, Pennsylvania, New 
York, Massachusetts, Alaryland, and Virginia produced about four-fifths. 

90. Louisiana was the first State to be formed out of Jefferson's pur- 
chase (1812). To Louisiana up to the time of her admission belongs the 
distinction of flying four flags. New Orleans was founded in 171 8 and 
became the great port for the whole Mississippi Valley. Up to 18 19 a 
part of this State was known as West Florida and was owned by Spain. 
To this day certain parts of this State are spoken of as the Florida Parishes. 

The State of Louisiana when she entered the Union, with almost 
100,000 inhabitants, was made up largely of French and Spanish Creoles. 
Their children still cherish this distinction. Jackson placed New Orleans 
in the "military hall of fame" by defeating the British after peace had 
been made. 

In the war for the Confederacy Louisiana played a great part. Soon 
after the Confederacy was formed President Davis appointed Judah P. 
Benjamin a member of his cabinet. He held office until the end of the 
war. General Beauregard of this State was distinguished in the Mexican 
and Civil Wars. 

91. Indiana is known as the Hoosier State. It was admitted to the 
Union in 1816. The red men were first in Indiana. Then came the French 
and won the hearts of the Indians. "Old Vincennes" was the leading 
French town. It then fell to the British (1763), but was taken from them 
by that brave George Rogers Clark with his handful of bold backwoodsmen 
(1779). Indiana once belonged to Virginia. Its territory included the 
present Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin (1800). General Harrison as 
governor won the great Indian battle of Tippecanoe (181 1). After the 
War of 1 8 12 Indiana largely caught the great wave of migration that 



xxviii The Appendix 

poured up from the South and in from the East. The population had 
grown from 24,500 (1810) to 147,000 (1820). Indiana, with the exception 
of Delaware, bears the distinction of having sent the largest percentage of 
her sons to the War of 1861. In the last generation Indiana has been 
called "the mother of poets and writers of fiction." There is a saying that 
"every Hoosier is born with a pen in his hand." It is enough for Indiana 
that she produced James Whitcomb Riley. 

92. De Soto first saw this region (1539). La Salle came (1682) nearh- 
1 50 years afterwards. Then came the famous Tonty, who had been with 
La Salle, and settled Natchez (1690). Indian wars kept back the settle- 
ments. When the French and Indian War closed, the region fell to Great 
Britain (1763), but twenty years later Great Britain gave it up to the 
United vStates. Georgia owned the land to the Mississippi, but turned it 
over to Congress. The Mississippi Territory, including Alabama, was 
formed in 1804. Spain claimed the lower part of this territory up to 18 19. 
Mississippi was born into the Union in 1817. Within three years its 
population was 75,000, and by 1830 it had grown to 136,600. Mis.sissippi 
soldiers made a great record in the Mexican War and in the war between 
the States. The siege of Vicksburg was the most famous of its kind in 
that great struggle. Jefferson Davis, this State's adopted son, was presi- 
ident of the Confederacy throughout the long, hard war. He lived during 
his last days in a beautiful home, a present from a Mississippi lady. It 
was here that his Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government was written. 

93. Illinois was the third vState carved out of the "Old Northwest." 
The Indians had paddled her prairie streams with Joliet and Marquette 
(1673). La Salle had called her Indians to Starved Rock, under the pro- 
tection of Fort St. Louis (1682). For nearly seventy-five years fur trader 
and missionary went to and fro in peace. Illinois was in the Revolution; 
Kaskaskia and Cahokia were both captured by George Rogers Clark 
(1778) in a most thrilling and romantic campaign. Kaskaskia, under the 
French called "the Paris of America," was made the capital. lUinois, 
including Wisconsin and a part of Minnesota, was made a territory' in 
1809. After the War of 1812, people rushed into the region. Illinois was 
made a State in 181 8 and the capital moved to Vandalia. A second move 
carried the capital to Springfield (1836). The State is famous as the scene 
of the debates between Lincoln and Douglas, and because of the fact that 
these men, both residents of the State, became candidates for the high 
office of president (i860). 

94. Alabama was The home of the Creek, Chickasaw, and Choctaw 
Indians. The French settled Mobile (1702) and it remained their capital 
until New Orleans was chosen. France lost to Great Britain (1763) and 
the northern part of Alabama went to the Illinois country, and the southern 
part to West Florida. The American Revolution changed all this, and 
this region fell to Georgia. Jackson crushed the Indians in Alabama in 
two battles in the War of 1812. The Mobile section was won from Spain 
during the War of 1812, and added to the Mississippi Territory which 
then included Alabama. The territory of Alabama was soon set off (18 17) 
and two years afterwards it became a State. The population (1820) was 
nearly 128,000, and in ten years more it reached the great figure of over 
309,500. The ablest and most fiery orator of all the South was W. L. 
Yancey. A man of attractive personality, his orator}' dominated the 
National Democratic Convention of i860. He was prominent in the 
secession movement, and went to Europe (1861) to seek recognition of the 
Confederacy among the old world countries. Montgomery' was chosen 



The Appendix xxix 

as the capital of the Confederacy and is still sometimes called by its old 
popular name of the "Cradle of the Confederacy." When Virginia 
seceded the capital was removed to Richmond. 

95. English navigators visited this region early in the sixteenth cen- 
tury. In 1606 the Maine region fell to the Plymouth Company as part 
of the grant made to them by King James I. The first settlement made 
by the Company (1607) was at the mouth of the Kennebec, but was later 
abandoned. The first permanent settlement was founded at Pemaquid 
in 1626. In 1652 Massachusetts extended her authority over Maine, 
which remained in her possession until 1820. In that year Maine was 
made a state to offset the admission of Missouri as a slave state. During 
the Revolution, Maine sent many patriots to aid in the struggle for inde- 
pendence. Maine has long been noted for its summer resorts. Its 
invigorating climate, picturesque coast, and beautiful lakes and rivers 
attract many visitors. 

96. Missouri was the second state formed from the Louisiana Purchase 
(1821). La Salle claimed this region when he planted the flag of France 
at the mouth of the Mississippi (1682). It went to Spain by the Treaty 
of Paris (1763); back to France in 1800, and then to the Union by the 
Great Purchase (1803). St. Louis was settled by a French boy (1764) 
and was a post for gathering fur. Missouri was set off as a territory (181 2) 
with 20,000 people. Two streams of population poured in, one from the 
East and the other from the South, and in six short years Missouri asked 
for admission as a State, for it had more than 60,000 people. But the 
slavery question kept her out until 1821, when the Missouri Compromise 
became a law. Jefferson City, near the center, was made the capital 
(1826). Missouri's great son. Senator Benton, was the defender of Jackson 
and the champion of a railroad to the Pacific. During the Civil War 
Missouri was a "house divided against itself," and sent thousands of 
soldiers into both armies. Not until the spring of 1862 was it settled that 
Missouri would not secede. 

97. Jackson disobeyed orders in crossing the Florida line, and Cal- 
houn, Monroe's secretary of war, declared that he ought to be court- 
martialed. When Jackson learned this long afterwards the two men became 
deadly enemies. Congress debated for three weeks, the question whether 
Jackson should be censured or not. Henry Clay was against Jackson. 

98. Spain's claim to Florida was based on the explorations of Ponce de 
Leon. He was the first white man to see Florida (15 13). He was search- 
ing for a fountain of youth, and landed on the shores of this region on a day 
when his church has the Feast of Flowers. Hence he gave it the name 
Florida. Later De Soto wandered through its forests. For a long time 
Spanish Florida was a danger spot to the colonist (§302) and to the United 
States. From 1763 to 1783 it was under Enghsh control. On the same 
day that peace was signed with the colonies, England returned the region 
to Spain. The Seminole Indians were bold and made war on the whites. 
General Jackson crushed both the Indian and the Spanish resistance. 
Florida was ceded to the United States by Spain in 18 19, and in 1822 was 
made a territory. In 1845 Florida became a State. 

Florida was one of the first States to join the Confederacy and one of 
the most solid for secession. In late years Florida is proving one of the 
most delightful winter resorts in the United States. 

99. Congress was evidently divided on this question, for Calhoun, 
chairman of the Committee on Internal Improvements, recommended a 
nation-wide movement for roads and canals (18 16). 



XXX The Appendix 

100. New York in 1903 voted over $100,000,000 to make the Eric into 
a "barge" canal, and in 1915 $27,000,000 more. It was used in 1918 by 
the national government to relieve the freight rushing to New York. 

loi. John Adams and Thomas Jefferson had renewed their friendship. 
They had been the best of friends from the early days of the Revolution 
to its close, but in the bitter struggle between Federalists and Republicans 
had grown away from each other. On July 4, 1826, while the people were 
celebrating the fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, 
John Adams and Thomas Jefferson lay dying. "Jefferson still lives," 
said Adams. "This is the Fourth of July," said Jefferson, and passed 
away. One had immortalized himself as the author, and the other as the 
orator, of the Declaration (§176). 

102. The participation of the United States in the Great War and in 
the Peace Conference at its close has been construed as contrary to the 
spirit of the Monroe Doctrine. In that famous message to Congress, 
Monroe said: "In the wars of the European powers, in matters relating 
to themselves, we have never taken any part, nor does it comport with our 
policy to do so." But in the sentence immediately following he said, "It 
is only when our rights are invaded or seriously menaced that we recent 
injuries or make preparation for our defense." In the Great War the rights 
of Americans had been seriously menaced. Smaller nations in Europe 
were being oppressed and their destiny controlled by a foreign power. 
The rights and liberties of Americans would be in danger should that power 
succeed. Participation in the war was inevitable. The Monroe Doctrine 
had become a doctrine of liberation from oppression to all the world, 
assuring to every nation, large or small, the right to work out its own 
destiny without interference, and proclaiming equality and justice to all. 

103. Andrew Jackson was one of the most remarkable men in our 
history. He was a fine type of the Westerner, — -brave, truthful, self- 
reliant, faithful to his friends and feared by his foes. He had a high 
temper, but usually kept it under control. He had the freedom of the 
West; but when occasion demanded, his manner was dignified and impres- 
sive. His tastes were simple and he had a high sense of duty. 

104. Jackson had said that he himself was no politician, but if he were 
he would be a New York politician. 

105. A Democrat said that Harrison was an old man and if given a 
pension and a barrel of cider he would spend the rest of his days in his log 
cabin. The Whigs turned the statement to their advantage, and the log 
cabin and the barrel of hard cider became emblems of the campaign. 

106. Moses Austin and his son Stephen came to the Texas region in 
1820. They recognized the resources of the region and secured a grant 
from Mexico of a large tract of land. The new Texan Colony was estab- 
lished on the site of the present city of Austin. Large numbers of settlers 
flocked in, taking up the whole region from the Sabine to the Nueces rivers. 
The Republic of Mexico offered large premiums in land grants to attract 
these settlers to her Texan province. But the Americans were dissatisfied 
and caused much trouble for the l;ome government in Mexico. As early 
as 1826, a band of Texans proclaimed eastern Texas an independent 
republic. But the uprising was soon suppressed. In 1830, the Mexican 
authorities forbade the entry of more Americans. Naturally the senti- 
ment in Texas was toward the United States. Great numbers of the 
colonists had come from the northern states. New York, Pennsylvania, 
Ohio, and Virginia, but the larger number had come from the south. 

In 1833, the Texans held a convention to form a separate government 



The Appendix xxxi 

for the entire Texas region, which at that time was part of the Mexican 
State of Coahuila. In 1835 began the armed revolt, which finally won 
independence for Texas. 

107. The term "dark horse" is applied in politics to a candidate who, 
though little known, is unexpectedly nominated as a compromise of jarring 
factions. James K. Polk had been twice defeated for governor of Tennes- 
see. When it was seen in the Democratic convention that opposition to 
Van Buren would make Van Buren's nomination impossible, Polk's name 
was introduced. He was unanimously nominated on the ninth ballot. 
The term "dark horse" in racing talk means an unknown horse which 
unexpectedly wins the race. 

108. The Maine boundary was the most difficult of the problems to 
be settled by the treaty. The people of Maine and those of New Bruns- 
wick had frequent quarrels about the region in dispute. At times blood- 
shed was barely averted. The Webster-Ashburton Treaty settled this 
difficulty. It marked the line as it now stands, Maine receiving 7,000 
square miles of the disputed land, and New Brunswick, 5,000. 

Other territory held by England and yielded to the United States by 
this treaty was St. Georges Island, in the strait between Lake Superior 
and Lake Huron, and Isle Royale in Lake Superior. From Lake Superior 
the line was traced along Pigeon River and the chain of small lakes to 
the Lake of the Woods and thence along the forty-ninth parallel to the 
Rocky Mountains. The Hne through the Oregon region remained unde- 
termined until the Oregon Treaty was ratified in 1846. This simply 
extended the line of the Webster-Ashburton Treaty along the forty-ninth 
parallel to the middle of the channel between Vancouver Island and 
the mainland, thence southeast through the straits to the Pacific. The 
right of navigation in the channel and the straits was free to both nations. 
The Ashburton treaty provided for the return of fugitives from justice. 
It was also agreed that the two nations should unite in efforts for the 
suppression of the African slave trade. 

109. Mexico, our southern neighbor, was explored and conquered by 
the famous Spaniard Cortez (15 19-21). It became a part of the great 
Spanish empire, and so remained for three centuries. At one time it was 
much larger than at present, and included land that has since become a 
part of the United States. It might have become a fine country, but it 
was not well governed. Discontent arose and Mexico declared its inde- 
pendence (1810) about the same time that Spain's colonies in South 
America were seeking theirs. 

As a separate country, therefore, Mexico is a little more than a century 
old. During the most of this time it has been, at least in name, a republic 
composed of states, somewhat as our own country is. It has had its ups 
and downs. Texas won its independence. Then came war with the 
United States, and the loss of more territory. 

During recent years the relations of the two countries have been 
strained. This was partly because of unsettled conditions in Mexico after 
the murder of its president, Madero (1913). It was also partly due to 
the efforts of German plotters to set the two countries against each other. 
The friends of both lands now hope that the coming of world peace may 
bring better feeling between the two republics, and that they may hence- 
forth live on good terms. 

no. The increase in the number of foreigners, the interest aroused 
by the Texan revolution and the Mexican War, and the discovery of gold 
in California gave rise to a new tide of migration. As a result Texas 

17 



xxxii The Appendix 

and Florida entered the Union (1845) and broke the balance of power 
between the free and the slave States. Iowa (1846) and Wisconsin (1848) 
restored it, but it was again broken forever in favor of the North by the 
admission of California (1850), Minnesota (1858), and Oregon (1859). 

111. In 1840 the Liberty party got 7,000 and in 1844 62,000. The 
Free Soil party received over 290,000. 

112. In the United States there were 4,000,000 foreign-born people in 
i860. Only 400,000 were in the South, and of these more than half lived 
in Maryland and Missouri. 

113. From 1845 to 1847, Ireland was visited by a terrible famine, due to 
the failure of the potato crop. Many died and thousands emigrated to the 
United States. From 1840 to i860, over 1,700,000 Irish came to America. 
In these same years, 1,400,000 Germans settled in the United States. 

Before 1830 the average immigration had been about 5,000 a year. 
Since i860 the annual average immigration soon reached 500,000. Ger- 
man and Irish immigration fell off, while the number of immigrants frorq. 
Southern and Eastern Europe increased enormously. Since 1880, South 
Italians, Polish, Austrians and Hungarians, Greeks, Lithuanians, Arme- 
nians, and Russians make up the majority of the immigrants. In 191 4, 
at the outbreak of war, immigration suddenly fell off. From over i ,200,000 
in 1914 it fell to less than 327,000 in 1915 and 111,000 in 1918. 

The danger to the safety of American institutions from the settlement 
in our cities and towns of immigrants who maintain their allegiance to 
foreign governments was demonstrated in the Great War. Thousands 
of alien enemies had to be kept under restraint. Much injury was done 
to the American cause by agents of enemy governments. 

114. Massachusetts was first to establish the common school. In 
1647 a law was passed requiring every town of fifty families to maintain 
an elementary school. Every town of one hundred families was to support 
a Latin or grammar school. Most of the other colonies soon followed the 
example of Massachusetts. In 1785, after the Revolution, Congress 
passed the famous Land Ordinance of 1785. This applied particularly to 
the Northwest Territory. It provided for the survey of all public lands 
into townships thirty-six miles square, and the township into sections of 
640 acres each. One section in each township was set aside for the support 
of common schools. State systems for free public education were now 
widely established. Secondary schools remained for a time largely pay 
schools, called "grammar" schools and academies. These gradually 
gave way to the free high schools. The first free high school was estab- 
lished in Boston in 1826. A Massachusetts law required towns of 500 
families to maintain high schools. The movement soon spread to other 
states and the number of free high schools increased enormously in the 
succeeding years. 

115. The period of study in the academy extended generally over 
three years. Each year was divided into terms of from eleven to fifteen 
weeks each. The tuition fees ranged from $3.00 a term for elementary 
branches of study to $6.00 a term for Latin, Greek, and French, and 
$8.00 for music. 

116. In some communities this machine was called a "groundhog." 
A groundhog was a difficult animal for a dog to pull out of his hole. The 
thresher resembled a groundhog in that if it ever got its teeth in a bundle 
of wheat it was sure to pull it in. 

117. It is told that the people of Philadelphia, in 1812, drove a seller 
of hard coal out of town as a swindler. 



The Appendix xxxiii 

Ii8. It was in London that George's father met Mary Bell, called on 
account of her beauty, the Rose of Epping Forest. She, too, was a Vir- 
ginian, visiting the old home. They were married. 

119. Both Missouri and Kentucky were for a while claimed by the 
Confederacy. 

120. See note 1 19. 

121. Ulysses S. Grant was born in Ohio. He went to West Point, and 
was an officer in the Mexican War. At the opening of the war in 1 861 he 
was appointed an officer by the government of Illinois. 

122. Robert E. Lee was born in Virginia. He studied at West Point 
and graduated high in his class. He won distinction as an officer in the 
Mexican War. When the war broke out (1861) he was appointed to 
command by the governor of Virginia. 

123. In 1917 and 1918, while the United States was engaged in the war, 
the government again borrowed money in this way. These loans were 
called Liberty Loans. Two were issued in 1917 and two in 1918. The 
amount of subscriptions to the first loan was $3,035,226,850; for the 
second, $4,617,532,300; to the third, $4,158,599,100; and to the fourth, 
$6,954,875,200; a total of loans during the year and a half of war of 
$18,766,233,450. 

124. The attempt to put Maximilian on the Mexican throne was a wild 
adventure on the part of Napoleon III, who had made himself emperor of 
France and was trying to imitate the great Napoleon. The people of 
France should not be held responsible for it. 

125. You will notice that all the presidential candidates were generals. 
Is there any significance in that fact? 

126. The purpose of this bill was to keep the president and vice-presi- 
dent of the same party. It is bad enough to have the House and the Senate 
belonging to different parties. 

127. Coxey's army, made up largely of tramps, several hundred in num- 
ber, started from Ohio to compel Congress to send forth $500,000,000 of 
greenbacks. Only 300 men reached Washington, where Coxey was 
arrested for "walking on the grass." 

128. In 1870 the Bureau of Education at Washington proved that 
persons who can neither read nor write commit six to eight times as many 
offenses as people who can do both. This Bureau also gathered facts to 
show that the community with the longest school term is the one with 
the greatest skill to do work. 

129. George Peabody was an American, living in London at the time of 
his gift. He now lies buried in his native land. To the South he gave a 
total of $3,500,000. His total gifts to both England and America reach 
between $8,000,000 and $9,000,000. 

130. One tenth of Indiana's men were at the front, yet she raised 
5,000,000 bushels more wheat than in 1859. How could the North have 
worn out the South without its farm machinery? 

131. In some of the deepest mines, mules are kept for drawing the coal. 
Having little use for their eyes, their sight gradually fails. 

132. In 1910, fifty less firms used seven times as much capital and pro- 
duced iron and steel worth six times as much as in 1880. A like growth 
has taken place in manufacturing cloth. 

133. In many cases the price of labor did not fall, but the same effect 
was felt when all the things the laborer had to buy rose in price. 

134. The Knights of Labor let the report get out that they had more 
than 5,000,000 members, but it has since been proved that they had fewer 
than 1,000,000. 



xxxiv The Appendix 

135. Cuba is the largest of the West Indian Islands. Its area is a 
little less than that of Alabama and its population a little greater. It is 
narrow but long. If laid on the map of the United vStates, it would reach 
from New York to Chicago. 

Columbus discovered Cuba on his first voyage. From that time on 
for 400 years it remained in the hands of Spain. Even when her colonies 
in South America won their independence from her Cuba remained a 
Spanish possession. Spain was proud of it and of its beautiful city, 
Havana. Several times she refused to sell it to the United States. 

136. Richard P. Hobson since that famous exploit has been several 
times elected to Congress and has become one of the foremost men of the 
country in the fight for prohibition. 

137. Among other distinguished Confederates ranked as major- 
generals were Fitzhugh Lee of Virginia and AI. C. Butler of South Carolina. 

138. The Philippine Islands contain about as many people as the State 
of Pennsylvania, but nearly three times as much land. They are as far 
south as the Panama Canal and nearly halfway around the world west of 
it. They were discovered by Magellan (1521) on his famous voyage 
across the Pacific Ocean. He was killed in a light with the natives. The 
Islands were named after the Spanish king, Philip II. The capital, 
Manila, was founded by the Spanish in 1571, and is one of the oldest cities 
in the possession of the United States. These islands were held by Spain 
for more than three centuries. The great victory of Dewey at Manila 
changed their fate. When peace came, they were in our possession. We 
have tried to make our rule just and helpful to the natives. A great deal 
has been done to improve their health and to educate them. They are 
being trained to take part in their own government, and we have promised 
to give the government over to them when they learn how to manage it. 

139. See note 154. 

140. The Philippines alone counted more than 400 islands, of which 
Luzon, the seat of Manila, is about the size of Kentucky. The PhiHppines 
number nearly 8,000,000 people. 

141. This is the most valuable group in mid-Pacific and consists of a 
dozen islands about as big as New Jersey. Population at the time of 
annexation was about 150,000. The Japanese number over 60,000, the 
natives 65,000, and the whites but 25,000. 

142. Several nations had obtained ports of China for purposes of 
trading. Hay saw that this was not good, either for China or for America. 
England promptly agreed to Hay's plan of permitting everybody to trade 
in all parts of China, but the others answered only in a general way. 

143. Roosevelt was already a national figure. He graduated at Har- 
vard, for his health became a cowboy and hunter, was a member of the 
Legislature of New York, was on the National Civil Service Board, and 
for six years served as police commissioner of New York, was assistant 
secretary of the navy, raised the Rough Riders, and was elected governor 
of New York (1900). 

144. One of the medical oflficers of the army in Cuba discovered that 
the mosquito carries the yellow fever poison from a sick person to well ones. 
Thus the terrible disease is spread. In Cuba it slew its thousands, and 
several times invaded the South. Not only was Cuba cleared of this 
scourge, but it became possible to build the Panama Canal without danger 
from yellow fever or malaria. 

145. It is said that the people of South America have a deep respect 
for the name of Henry Clay, who, while Secretary of State, was their 
champion. 



The Appendix xxxv 

146. Second Pan-American Congress was held in Mexico (1901-1902), 
a third in Rio de Janeiro (1906), and a fourth in Buenos Aires (19 10). 

147. General Grant was a great soldier, but he loved peace far better 
than war. He said : "I look forward to a day when there shall be courts 
establisiied that shall be recognized by all nations which shall take into 
consideration all differences between nations and settle by arbitration, 
or decision of such courts, their questions." 

148. Clark once had a majority of the votes and would have been 
nominated had it not been for the two thirds rule. 

149. An income tax had been passed during the Civil War, and another 
law was declared unconstitutional in Cleveland's administration. The 
Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution now made this law safe. 

150. This amendment has been adopted by the necessary number of 
states. It forbids the manufacture, sale, transportation, importation, 
or exportation of intoxicating liquors for drinking purposes. 

151. The submarine is an undersea boat, as its name shows. J. P. Hol- 
land, an Irishman, living in America, was its inventor. All the leading 
nations in the Great War had scores of them. They have been greatly 
improved and can sink the strongest ship and frequently drop out of sight 
before attacked. Their value in times of peace was demonstrated by the 
"Deutschland," which brought to the United States in July, 1916, a large 
supply of chemicals and dyes much needed by American industry. 

152. Among the causes that have aroused America against Germany 
were (i) German cruelty in Belgium and other lands in her possession, 
(2) German plots against us in Mexico and elsewhere, (3) the belief, 
which has grown stronger and stronger, that if Germany were victorious 
in this war, she would attack us next. 

153. This amendment has passed the House, but not yet (1919) the 
Senate. It is as follows: 

"Section i. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not 
be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account 
of sex. 

Section 2. Congress shall have power, by appropriate legislation, to 
enforce the provisions of this article." 

154. The American Red Cross was established in 1882, through the 
efforts of Clara Barton. At first the work of the organization was con- 
ducted only in times of war. In 1887 Miss Barton succeeded in extending 
its sphere to work of relief in times of peace as well as in war. In the 
great calamities that have befallen our country, the Red Cross has been 
foremost in bringing relief. Gradually the organization has become a 
popular society with chapters in all parts of the country. 

In the years of the war in Europe the work of the American Red Cross 
was of the very highest order. It received the united support of the 
people at home. From the date of the entry of the United States into 
the war to its close, the popular subscriptions to the American Red Cross 
amounted to more than $316,000,000. In November, 1918, the total 
membership of all branches of the American Red Cross was almost 29,000,- 
000, or more than a fourth of the total population of the United States. 

155. Hoover had just arrived from Europe where he had control of the 
supplies for the Belgians. 

156. Garfield is president of Williams College and a son of former 
President James A. Garfiteld. 



xxxvi The Appendix 

STUDY QUESTIONS AND COLLATERAL READING 

(1-26) /. Why did Europeans wish to go to India? 2. Explain 
what Marco Polo did to aid the discovery of America. Prince Henry? 
J. What helped and what hindered Columbus? 4. Name the nations 
which refused a chance of discovering Amecria. 5. Trace the first voy- 
age of Columbus on a map. 6. What difference to us had Columbus 
sailed directly west from Spain? 7. How do you account for Spain's ill 
treatment of Columbus? 8. Make a list of Spanish explorers with the 
regions visited, p. If Columbus had lived until 1522, what would he 
have learned about his discovery of America? 10. What was the work of 
the Spanish missions? //. Draw a line across North America through the 
most northerly points reached by Spain. 12. Why was it safer for France 
along the St. Lawrence than in Florida? 13. Why did Hawkins and Drake 
plunder Spaniards? 14. Why did Raleigh plant a colony in America? 

15. Why did his colonies fail? What is meant by the "lost colony"? 

16. Draw on a map lines showing what France and England claimed. 
Did each nation claim more than it had really settled? 77. Prove that 
England claimed the best region. 18. Make a list of the ways the Indians 
helped the Whites and another showing how they hindered them. 

Histories: John Fiske's Discovery of America, I, 164-171 (Northmen); 
280-284 (Marco Polo); II, 4-7 (John Cabot); 188-207 (Magellan) ; 245-555 
(Cortez); 391-408 (Pizarro); 390, 398, 509 (De Soto). YiaXe'^. Stories of 
the Discovery, 34-58 (Da Gama); 59-85 (Magellan); 86-106 (Drake). 
Mace's Primary History, 1-3 (The Northmen); 3-7 (Marco Polo); 8-20 
(Columbus); 21-35 (Magellan, Cortez, Pizarro); 36-42 (Coronado, De 
Soto); 42-54 (Cabot, Drake, Raleigh). McMurry's Pioneers on Land and 
Sea, 161-225 (Magellan, Cortes); 1-34 (Champlain). 

Sources: Hart's Source Book, 1-6; 6-8; 9-1 1. Hart's Source Readers, 
I, 4 (Columbus' Account of His Discovery); 10 (Balboa's Discovery); 
12 (Pizarro's Conquest of Peru); 16 (De Soto); 16 (Raleigh's Lost Colony). 

Fiction: Munroe's Flamingo Feather; Henty's Under Drake's Flag; 
Longfellow's Sir Humphrey Gilbert and Hiawatha. 

(27-47) '■ State the purposes of the Company, the king, and the 
settlers in planting Jamestown. 2. Make a list of reasons why the first 
settlers did not work well. 3. Name ways in which John Smith worked 
for the colony. 4. Explain the effect of raising tobacco on (a) popula- 
tion, (6) occupations, (r) classes of laborers. 5. Pay an imaginary 
visit to the gallery of the church at Jamestown, July 30, 1619, and "pic- 
ture" the scene. 6. Why was the founding of the House of Burgesses a 
great event? 7. What changes in the colony made the settlers wish to 
make Virginia their home? 8. Make a list of important events in 1619. 
g. What was the difference between an "indented" servant and a negro 
servant? 10. On what point did Virginia and England agree? What 
did the turning of Harvey out of office mean? //. On what point did 
Virginians and Purtians not agree? 12. Why did Virginia welcome the 
Cavaliers? How did their coming help the colony? 13. Make a list 
showing the difference between Virginia under Charles I and under Crom- 
well. 14. Explain how the Navigation Law gave English merchants a 
double advantage over Americans. 15. Why did Berkeley not make war 
on the Indians? 16. Resolved that Bacon was a greater friend to Virginia 
than Governor Berkeley. 17. Of what use was a college in the colony? 
18. Name the persecuted classes whom we have seen coming to America. 



The Appendix xxxvii 

ig. Point the differences between the government in Maryland and that 
in Virginia. 20. Name three causes of trouble between Maryland and 
Virginia. 21. How did the Baltimores rule Maryland? 

Histories: Fiske's Old Virginia and Her Neighbors, I, 80-91 (John 
Smith); 185-188 (First Representative Assembly in America); 255-256 
(George Calvert); 263-274 (Lord Baltimore and the Maryland Charter); 
II, 12-14 (Cavaliers); 55-56 (Berkeley); 64, 65 (Bacon). John Esten 
Cooke's Virginia, 1 13-124 (The Assembly, Maids and Slaves); 176-179 
(Baltimore and Claiborne) ; 230-232, 258-264 (Bacon's Rebellion) ; Cooke's 
Stories of the Old Dominion, 29-55 (Smith and Pocahantas) ; The Old 
Dominion and the Great Rebellion, 56-81. Mace's Primary History, 56-70 
(John Smith and Pochantas) ; 65-69 (Bacon and Berkeley) ; 70-74 (Balti- 
more). Brook's The Story of Corn, 65. 

Sources: Hart's Source Book, 11-14, 48-51, 71-73, 108-109; Hart's 
Source Readers I, 98-104 (Pocahantas); 143 (Settlement of Maryland). 

Fiction: Mary Johnston's To Have and to Hold, and Audrey 

(48-61) I. Why did the Carolina settlers oppose the Grand Model? 
2. Keep a list of the quarrels between the governors and the people's 
representatives, j. Keep a list of the countries from which the settlers 
came. 4. State the differences between the two Carolinas. 5. On what 
points did the colony of Georgia differ from the other southern colonies? 

6. Which southern colonies had little or no trouble with the Indians? 

7. Was or was not Georgia a successful barrier? 

Histories: Fiske's Old Virginia and Her Neighbors, II, 276-279 (First 
Colonies in Carolina); 294-297 (Quakers); 308-316, 322-324 (Comparison 
of the Carolinas). Eggleston's Owr First Century, 115 (Peopling Caro- 
linas). Cooke's Virginian, 176-179 (Baltimore and Claiborne). Mace's 
Primary History, 111-114 (Oglethorpe). Eggleston's Life in the Eighteenth 
Century, 32-39; Ravenel's Charleston, 13-25 (Founding the City. The 
Huguenots); 59-68 (Tuscaroras and the Yemassees). 

Sources: Hart's Source Book, 48-51, 71-73, 108-109; Hart's Source 
Readers I, 23-48. 

Fiction: Simm's The Yemassee. 

(62-84) -'■• Make a list of colonies outside of New England which 
contained some Puritans. 2. How did Separatists and other Puritans 
agree and how did they differ? 3. Name the feeling which caused the 
Pilgrims to leave Holland. 4. How did they compare with other New 
England Colonies? 5. Give the cause and the immediate purpose of the 
great Puritan migration. 6. Why did the Puritans always settle in towns? 
7. Make a list of the advantages of this plan of settlement as com- 
pared with the Virginia or southern plan. 8. What was the feeling 
of the Bay Colony Puritans toward other sects? g. Why did Watertown 
refuse to pay the tax? What declaration did the Virginia House of Bur- 
gesses make about taxation? 10. What is the meaning of the difference 
between Winthrop and Hooker? //. What good results came out of the 
banishment of Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson? Who deserves the 
credit? 12. What outside dangers threatened Massachusetts? 13. What 
were the peculiar ideas and teaching of the Quakers? 14. How can you 
explain the cruel punishment of Quakers by England and Massachusetts? 
15. What change did James II, and Andros make in the government of 
Massachusetts? 16. Picture the overthrow of Andros. ly. How did the 
people of New Hampshire differ from those of Massachusetts? 18. Did 
Hooker's sermon agree with what Winthrop said? (§ 68) With which 
men do you agree? Why? ig. How did the New Haven union diflfer 



xxxviii The Appendix 

from the Connecticut union? 20. When, why, and by whom were Con- 
necticut and New Haven united? 21. For whom did Roger Williams 
found Rhode Island? 22. What colonies united to form Massachusetts? 
Connecticut? Rhode Island? 

Histories: Viske's Beginnings of New England, 65-87, 95-104, (Charter 
Granted, the Cambridge Meeting, and the Transfer of the Charter to 
America); 105-10S (No Taxation Without Representation); 114-119 
(Roger Williams and Mrs. Hutchinson); 261-274 (Struggle Over the 
Charter; Andros); 122-128 (Connecticut); 134-137 (New Haven). 
Drake's Making of New England, 67-87 (The Pilgrims); 149-155 (Salem 
Colony); 155-160 (The Great Migration); 108-172 (Boston); 172-184 
(Customs and Government); 214-218 (Harvard College and the First 
Printing Press). Hawthorne's Grandfather's Chair, 10-26 (Pilgrims and 
Puritans) ; 28-42 (Roger Williams and Mrs. Hutchinson) ; 55-58 (The 
Quakers); 108-114 (The Old-Fashioned School). Mace's Primary His- 
tory, 75-93 (Brewster, Standish, Winthrop, Williams, Hooker). Drake's 
Making of Netv England, 1 19-127 (Pioneers of Maine) ; 130-137 (Pioneers 
of New Hampshire); 187-194 (Pioneers of Connecticut). 

Sources: Hart's Source Book, 37-41, 80-82. Hart's History Told by 
Contemporaries, I, 356-359, 382-387 (Mrs. Hutchinson's Trial). Mace's 
Working Manual (A Quaker Letter, 1661). Hart's Source Readers, Nos. 
I, 10, II, 20, 21, 41, 43, 45, 46. 

Fiction and Poetry: Stowe's Mayflower. Austin's Standish of Standish. 
Mrs. Heman's The Pilgrim Fathers. Longfellow's Courtship of Miles 
Standish. Seton's Romance of the Charter Oak. 

(85-103.) I. What two great results were accomplished by the fur 
traders? 2. Why did the settlers of New Netherland want self-govern- 
ment? J. Make a list of colonies that persecuted on account of religious 
views. 4. What does Stuyvesant's declaration as to his source of author- 
ity prove in regard to his views of government? 5. Prove that the people's 
refusal to fight the English was the natural result of Stuyvesant's govern- 
ment. 6. How did James II disappoint the people of New York? 7. 
Make a list of the colonies whose governments William and Mary changed. 
8. What became of the colony Sweden planted? p. Explain how Dela- 
ware and Pennsylvania were connected. 10. Explain how New Jersey 
came to be divided. //. What other colonies contained Quakers before 
Pennsylvania? 12. Who founded the great Quaker colony? ij. What 
was their great principle and in what other ways did they differ from other 
sects? 14. Picture Penn's reception at Newcastle. 75. What is the 
meaning of the name "Philadelphia"? 16. Who besides Quakers settled 
in Pennsylvania? 

Histories: Fiske's Dutch and Quaker Colonies, I, 82-94 (Henry Hud- 
son); 133-137 (Patroon System); 198-201 (Stuyvesant). Wright's 
Stories in American History, 292-299 (Henry Hudson and the Knicker- 
bockers). Pratt's Early Colonies, 173-176 (Oglethorpe). Fiske's Dutch 
and Quaker Colonies, II, 114-117 (William Penn); 147-152 (Penn's Claim 
and Experiment). Eggleston's Hou'sehold History, 58-62 (Pennsylvania). 
Mace's Primary History, 95-1 11 (Hudson, vStuyvcsant, Fox, and Penn). 

Sources: Old South Leaflets, Nos. 69, 72, 94. Hart's Source Book, 
85-88. Hart's Contemporaries, 537-541, 544-547 (Leisler's Rebellion). 
Hart's Source Readers, No. i, 144-148 (Description of Pennsylvania); 
No. 2, 1-3 (An Early Quaker Colonist). 

Fiction: Irving's Knickerbocker's History of New York and Rip Van 
Winkle. Elbridge Brooks's In Leisler's Times. Byner's The Begum's 
Daughter. 



The Appendix xxxix 

(104-126.) I. What part of our present government did we get from 
the colonies? 2. How did the New Englander spend his winters? 3. 
Contrast the farm products of Virginia and South Carolina. 4. Picture 
the scene when the great ship came to the planter's door. 5. What did 
the colonists get out of the forests? 6. Name and describe each social 
class among the colonists and make a list of the ways in which social 
differences were shown. 7. Picture a governor's reception. Picture 
"rent day." 8. How and why did northern and southern homes differ? 
g. Make a list of things common in our day which colonial houses did not 
have; which colonial kitchens did not have. 10. What good did the 
colonists get out of training-day? 11. What things hindered schools in 
all the colonies? 12. What conditions discouraged libraries? 13. How 
did a colonial printer diflfer from a present-day one? 14. Prove that 
many religious sects were an advantage to America. 15. What ways were 
there of punishing law-breakers not now used? 16. Do you know any 
body who believes in witches? 17. What is the difference between a 
smuggler and a pirate? 

Histories: Eggleston's Life in the i8th Century, 707-182; Household 
History, 91-98 (Life in the Colonies); 99-113 (Trade and Industry). 
Ravenel's Charleston, 69-82 (The Pirates); 1 17-137 (Governor Glenn's 
Picture of Carolina). Roosevelt's Winning of the West, I, 1 10-125 (Life 
on the Frontier). Fisher's Colonial Era, 313-320. Fiske's New France 
atid New England, 133-196 (Witchcraft in Europe and in Salem). Wil- 
liams's Stories from Early New York, 21-32. Pratt's Early Colonies, I, 
198-201. 

Sotirces: Hart's Source Book, 115-117 (Philadelphia); 117-119 (New 
York Life); 122-123 (A Colonial Schoolboy); 91-92 (Plantation Life); 
88-90 (Trade). Mace's Working Manual, 133-136 (Commerce). Hart's 
Source Readers, No. i, 67 (Traveling); 149-152 (Plantation Life in Vir- 
ginia); 152-155 (Puritan Amusements); 192-196 (Young People of New 
Hampshire) ; 201-233 (Colonial Schools) ; No. 2, 32-34 (A Trial of a 
Witch); 59-61 (Life in Boston). Source Reader, No. i, 107-111 (Indian 
School); 201-223 (Colonial Schools); 34-51 (Pirates); No. 2, 1-36 (Home 
Life); 37-69 (Highways and Byways). 

Fiction and Poetry: Catherwood's The Story of Tonty. ~ Cooper's 
Last of the Mohicans. Thackeray's Virginians. Henty's With Wolfe 
in Canada. Monroe's At War with Pontiac. Sewall's ^ Virginia Cavalier. 
(Washington in the French and Indian War). Longfellow's Evangeline. 

(127-156.) /. Describe the Spanish possessions in America. 2. What 
made it clear that the struggle for North America was to be between 
France and England? 3. Picture the Indian battle in 1609 and explain 
its bearing upon the struggle for North America. 4. Why did Frenchmen 
get on better with the Indians than did Englishmen? 5. What natural 
advantages in position did the French colonies have over the English? 
6. Tell in your own way about the journeys of Marquette and Joliet and 
La Salle and Hennepin. 7. What did the French do to make good the 
work of La Salle? 8. What was the prize for which England and France 
fought? 9. How did the Indians divide in this war? 10. Why did the 
Spaniards join the French in the South? //. What did England gain by 
the Treaty in 17 13? 12. Why was possession of the region at the source 
of the Ohio River important to both French and English? 13. Make a 
list of reasons why Braddock's expedition failed. 14. Account for the 
failures of the English in 1756 and 1757. IS- What sort of a man was 
Pitt, and what did he do to win victories? 16. Why was 1759 a great 



xl The Appendix 

year in English history? 17. Make a word-pieture of the capture of 
Quebec. 18. How did driving France out of North America aid us? 

Histories: Thwaites' Colonies, 246-257. Parkman's Pioneers of 
France, 310-324 (Champlain and the Iroquois); 55-70 (Discovery of 
Mississippi and Great Lakes) ; 46-47 (Frontenac) ; 80-88 (Montcalm and 
Wolfe). McMurry's Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley, 1-15 (Joliet and 
Marquette); 16-67 (La Salle and Hennepin). Roosevelt's Winning of 
the West, I, 25-48 (Ohio Valley). Wright's Stories in American History, 
316-330 (La Salle). Cooke's Stories of the Old Dominion, 94-109 (Wash- 
ington the Surveyor); 1 10-122 (Washington in the Wilderness); 123-139 
(Braddock and His Defeat). Hawthorne's Grandfather's Chair, 140-149 
(Louisburg); 152-169 (The Old French War). Mace's Primary History, 
1 16-130 (Champlain, Joliet and Marquette, La Salle and Hennepin); 
1 31-138 (Montcalm and Wolfe). Mace's Washington, 1-66. 

Soiirces: Hart's Source Readers, No. 2, 122-124 (Founding New 
Orleans). Hart's Source Book, 14-17 (Champlain); 96-98 (La Salle); 
103-105 (Braddock's Defeat); 105-107 (Capture of Quebec); 100 (Fur 
Trade with the Indians); 94-100 (Pontiac's Attempt to Capture Detroit); 
138-141 (Braddock's Defeat); 146-150 (Capture of Quebec). Hart's 
Contemporaries, II, 140-144 (La Salle and the Mississippi); 320-322 
(French Fur Trade); 346-349 (Louisburg Expedition). 

(157-181.) /. What resolution did George III make on coming to 
the throne? 2. How did the Englishmen in England feel toward King 
George III? 3. What was the purpose of the Navigation Acts? 4. Why 
did the king wish to break up smuggling? Why did the Americans wish 
to continue it? 5. Point out the difference between the Stamp tax and 
the old customs duties. 6. Why did the Americans oppose this tax? 
7. In how many ways did the colonies oppose the Stamp Act? Explain 
how each means helped to bring about its repeal. 8. How did James Otis's 
speech, Patrick Henry's resolutions, and the Declaration of Rights agree? 
g. What is the meaning of Christopher Gadsden's speech? 10. What do 
you infer from the fact that both England and America rejoiced over the 
repeal? //. What was new and what was old about the Tea tax? 12. 
Read the Circular Letter and tell what Samuel Adams accomplished by it. 
13. What were the Committees of Correspondence, and how did they 
carry on their work? 14. Why was there no "tea party" in New York, 
Philadelphia, Annapolis, or Charleston? 15. Was it not wrong to destroy 
the tea? Prove your answer. 16. Give time, place, purpose, immediate 
cause, and leading men of the Congress of 1774. 17. What is the meaning 
of the failure of Chatham's and Burke's efforts? 18. Make a list of the 
great men of the Revolution. 19. Make a "continuous picture" of events 
from the signal to Paul Revere till the British reached Boston again. 

20. Picture the battle of Bunker Hill and prove it a victory for both sides. 

21. What had Washington done to prove himself a soldier? 22. Prove 
that it is better to win a victory by strategy than by fighting. 23. What 
did the Americans wish to accomplish by fighting in 1775? 

Histories: Hawthorne's Grandfather's Chair, 182-201 (Stamp Act 
Doings); 201-219 (Boston Massacre); 229-239 (The Tea Party, Lexing- 
ton); 239-250 (Bunker Hill, Siege of Boston); 259-272 (Independence). 
Eggleston's Household History, 148-158 (How the Colonies were Governed). 
Yisike's, American Revolution, I, 14-16 (England's Policy); 122-125 (Effect 
of Stamp Act); 93-117 (The Intolerable Acts and The First Continental 
Congress); 120-127 (Paul Revere and Lexington). Ravenel's Clmrleston, 
145-163 (The Stamp Act); 164-201 (Governor Montague and the Gather- 



The Appendix xli 

ing Storm) ; 202-229 (State Government and the First Shot Fired) ; 230-248 
(Battle of Fort Moultrie); 249-313 (Charleston Captured. Marions' 
Men). M.3.gi\V 5 Stories from Virginia History, 1 16-128 (Patrick Henry). 
Hart's Camps and Firesides of the Revolution, 162-166 (Samuel Adams). 
Cooke's Stories of the Old Dominion, 162-173 (Patrick Henry); 173-179 
("Liberty or Death"); 193-204 (Leaders of the House of Burgesses); 
205-218 (Virginia Overthrows the King's Authority). Mace's Primary 
History, 141-158 (Patrick Henry and Samuel Adams); 159-185 (Wash- 
ington). Mace's George Washington, 66-102. 

Sources: Hart's Contemporaries, I, 381-382 (Franklin Tells Parliament 
about Stamp Act) ; 397-399 (A Stamp Act Mob) ; 404-407 (Pitt's Speech) ; 
431-433 (Tea Party); II, 546-550 (Lexington and Concord); 550-554 
(Mrs. Adams at the Front); 554-556 (Abandonment of New York, 1776); 
562-565 (Battle of the Kegs). Mace's Working Manual, 139-143 (Otis's 
Speech); 143-148 (Henry's Resolutions); 145-147 (Declaration of Rights); 
157-160 (Tea Party); 160-163 (Port Bill); 163-166 (Declaration of Rights) ; 
1 66-1 7 1 (Address to People of Great Britain); 172-174 (SuflFolk County 
Resolutions); 175-178 (Sentiments from Congress of 1774); 181-184 
(Chatham on Congress of 1774). Hart's Source Readers, No. 2, 157-158 
(Protest against the Stamp Act); 158-162 (Franklin before Parliament); 
259-269 (Battle of Lexington); 261-266 (Washington's Letter on the 
Capture of Boston). 

Fiction and Poetry: Holmes's Ballad of the Boston Tea Party. Long- 
fellow's Paul Reveres Ride; Grandmother's Story of Bunker Hill Battle. 
Cooper's Lionel Lincoln. Bryant's Green Mountain Boys. Bryant's 
Seventy-Six. 

(182-228.) /. Prove that the colonists did not at first desire indepen- 
dence. 2. Which colonies were first to favor separation from England? 
J. Who told Richard Henry Lee to introduce his resolution? 4. Who 
were the Tories and what effect did they have on the war? 5. What 
great plan of campaign did the British decide on for 1776, and for what 
reasons? 6. What did Washington do to meet this new plan? 7. Why 
did the people grow discouraged over this part of the campaign? 8. Pic- 
ture Washington's victory at Trenton, q. Keep a list of the times and 
ways in which Washington surprised the British. 10. What other great 
campaign was going on while Howe was marching to Philadelphia, and 
why did not Howe perform his part? 11. Make a list of battles like 
Bennington, thus far won by the unexpected appearance of minutemen or 
militia. 12. Write a short biography of Benjamin Franklin, emphasizing 
his services to his country, ij. Tell some of the results of the French 
AUiance. 14. What reasons could people find for believing Gates a greater 
general than Washington? 15. Make a Hst of foreigners who aided us 
and state what each did. 16. Who settled in the valleys of the Allegheny 
Mountains, and what two new regions were they beginning to occupy 
at the opening of the war? 17. What reasons were there for driving the 
British out of the Ohio Valley? 18. Explain Arnold's downfall. How 
do Americans feel toward Arnold, and why? iq. What was the quickest 
way to get war vessels? 20. At what points had the British already 
attacked the South? What encouraged them to try again? 21. In what 
ways did the fighting of Marion's men differ from that of minutemen? 
22. Tell the diSerences between King's Mountain and Cowpens. 2j. 
Whom did Washington send with Greene, and where have you heard of 
him before? 24. Why did not Cornwallis and Rawdon pursue Greene 
after each battle? 25. What did Washington want of Rochambeau and 



xlii The Appendix 

the French fleet? 26, Give reasons wliy one army in our day could not 
march from West l*oint and surprise another in Yorktown. 27. Imaj^ine 
yourself Comwallis and tell your thouj^hts and feelings at the surrender. 
Treat I.afayette and Washington in the same way. 28. Make a list of 
the cflfects of the surrender. 2p. Make a list of the times and circumstances 
between 1765 and 1783, when the Whigs of England aided the Americans 
and opposed George III. 30. Name nations concerned in the Treaty of 
1783. J7. Picture the parting of Washington from his generals. 32. 
Imagine yourself present when Washington gave back to Congress his 
commission and describe your thoughts and feelings. 33. What was 
unusual in this act of Washington? What does it prove? 

Histories: Fiske's American Revolution, I, 191-197 (Independence); 
229-234 (Trenton and Princeton); 283-296 (Bennington and Oriskany); 
299-344 (Saratoga); II, 1-24 (Alliance with France); 83-93 (Tories and 
Indians, Western New York and Pennsylvania); 94-109 (Kentucky, 
Tennessee, and Vincennes); 1 16-130 (Paul Jones); 244-290 (From King's 
Mountain to Yorktown). Wright's Children' s Stories of American Prog- 
ress, 1-40 (Boone). McMurry's Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley, 68-83 
(Boone); 84-103 (Robertson); 104-123 (Sevier). Phelan's Tennessee, 
57-66, 241-257. Roosevelt's Winning of the West, II, 1-12 (War in the 
Northwest); 68-S4 (Capture of Vincennes). Wright's Stories of American 
Progress, 1-40 (Western Settlements and Daniel Boone). Williams's 
Stories from Early New York, 182-187 (Schuyler); 193-195 (Stark); 
199-208 (Herkimer). Cooke's Stories of the Old Dominion, 245-256 
(Clark and the Capture of Vincennes). Mace's Primary History, 187-198 
(Schulyler, Stark, and Herkimer); 200-209 (Greene, Morgan, and Marion); 
211-219 (Paul Jones and John Barry); 230-239 (Lafayette, Steuben, 
Kosciusko, Pulaski, and De Kalb); Blaisdell and Bell's Hero Stories from 
American History, 105-122 (Daniel Morgan). Horry's Life of Marion. 
Beebe's Four American Heroes, 17-68 (Paul Jones). Mace's Washington, 
103-140. 

Sources: Hart's Source Book, 147-149 (Independence); 149-151 
(Princeton); 151-154 (A Southern Lady's War Experiences); 159-160 
(Surrender of CornwaUis). Hart's Contemporaries, II, 467-469 (Woman's 
Work); 474-476 (The Tories); 485-488 (Lafayette); 495-497 (Washing- 
ton); 515-51^ (Major Andre); 575-578 (War in New England, 1788); 
582-585 (Baron Steuben) 587-590 (Paul Jones); 606-609 (Madison's 
Account of the War); 609-612 (Southern Campaign); 615-618 (Surrender 
of CornwaUis); 627-629 (Washington's Resignation). 

Fiction and Poetry: Churchill's Richard Carvel. Cooper's Pilot. 
Thompson's Alice of Old Vincennes. George Eggleston's Carolina Cava- 
lier. Bryant's Song of Marion's Men. Simms's The Partisan. Kennedy's 
Horseshoe Robinson. Ogdcn's A Loyal Little Redcoat. Mitchell's Hugh 
Wynne. Ford's Janice Meredith. Henty's True to the Old Flag. Cooper's 
•^Py- Jane Parker's Thaddeus of Warsaw (Kosciusko). Bryant's Green 
Mountain Boys and Battle of Bennington. 

(229-246.) I. Why did the colonies find it easier to make the Declara- 
tion of Independence than the Articles of Confederation? 2. When did 
the Confederation become legally binding? Why not before? 3. Make 
a list of its weaknesses as a plan of government. 4. Name the ways in 
which the Confederation helped to cure itself. 5. How did the national 
land system help hold the states together? 6. Who was the father of the 
idea that the Northwest Territory should be free? 7. Show how Maryland 
and Virginia led the way to the great convention of 1787. 8. What event 



The Appendix xliii 

frightened some of the states and Congress into favoring the convention? 
Q. Make a Hst of the members of the convention whose names you have 
met before and another of those you have not. lo. Why do you think 
the convention decided to make a new Constitution? //. What was the 
point of quarrel between the small and large states? Explain the purpose 
and nature of the Connecticut Compromise. 12. What did the conven- 
tion aim to do in making a President? How was it decided to elect him? 
Why do some people think that they vote directly for President every 
four years? 13. Prove that national courts were needed. 14. Explain 
how the three departments work together. 75. Explain the two ways of 
amending the Constitution. 

Histories: Fiske's Critical Period oj American History, 145-147 (Com- 
mercial Strife in the Colonies); 216-217 (Annapolis Convention); 222-306 
(The Federal Convention); 309-315 (Struggle for Ratification in Penn- 
sylvania). Mace's Primary History, 267-272. Mace's Washington, 
140-152. 

Sources: Mace's Working Manual, 190-194 (Hamilton on the Defects 
of the Constitution); 195-197 (The Virginia Plan); 204-206 (The Con- 
necticut Compromise); 21 1-2 16 (Sentiments from the Convention). 
Hart's Source Book, 164-166 (Life in Congress); 172-175 (Constitution 
Criticised); 175-178 (A Farmer's Argument for the Constitution); 178-180 
(The "New Roof"). 

(247-273) /. Name the states which have now a larger population 
than the United States in 1790. 2. What was the most important occupa- 
tion in 1789? Compare the ways of living and working with those of 
Colonial times. Which do they most resemble, those of our times or of 
Colonial times? j. Take a journey from Boston to Philadelphia, and 
describe it fulUy. 4. How did the first settlers get to Ohio, and how did 
they get their products to the Atlantic cities? 5. How did the Revolution 
help or hinder education? Religion and morals? 6. What did people of 
both sections think of slavery in 1789? Why were the Quakers the 
strongest enemies of slavery then? 7. Make a list of the results brought 
about by the invention of the cotton gin. 8. Why was there no campaign- 
ing when Washington was made president? g. Make a "continuous" 
picture of Washington's journey. 10. Write k short sketch of Adams, 
Jefferson, and Hamilton. //. What is a tax on foreign goods called, and 
what is its purpose? 12. Make a list of the differences between the 
Federalists, and the Republicans or Democrats, /j. Tell the story of 
the rise of Kentucky and Tennessee. 14. Why did the region northwest 
of the Ohio fill up with settlers after the war with England? 75. Why did 
the people sympathize more with France than with England? 16. What 
do you conclude about party politics from the fact that Washington was 
accused of favoring a monarchy? ij. Read Washington's farewell address. 
18. Do the President and Vice-President belong to different parties now? 
How could the}' then? ig. What was the difference between the purpose 
and the result of the Alien and Sedition Laws? 20. Remember the points 
in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. 21. Who is the real judge 
whether Congress violates the Constitution or not? 22. Prove that the 
Federalists caused their own defeat in 1800. 2j. How did Jefferson and 
Burr tie? Why could such a tie not occur now? 24. What is a Chief 
Justice? When and how was John Marshall made Chief Justice? 

Histories: Earle's Stage Coach and Tavern Days, 253-264 (Early Stage 
Coaches). Hart's Formation of The Union, 103-104 (Condition of the 
Country); 113-115 (Slavery); 138-139 (The people in 1789); 146-151 



xliv The Appendix 

(Finances); 155-157 (Formation of Parties); 157-160, 166-168 (France); 
160-163 (Jay Treaty); 163-164 (Whisky Rebellion); 168-170 (Alien and 
Sedition Laws); 1 70-1 71 (Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions). Walker's 
Making of the Nation, 64-72 (The Country in 1790); 78-87 (Financial 
Measures); 88-100 (Starting the New Government); 1 14-123 (French 
Troubles); 136-168 ("X. Y. Z. Affair," Alien and Sedition Laws, and the 
Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions). McMaster's Washijigton and His 
Country, 500-506 (Journey and Inauguration of Washington). Side 
Lights on American History, I, 54-64 (Election and Inauguration of 
Washington); 65-79 (Federalist Party and the Alien and Sedition Laws). 
Mace's Primary History, 241-266 (Boone, Robertson, Sevier); 267-272 
(Hamilton.) Mace's Washington, 152-175. 

Sources: Hart's Source Book, 166-168 (The West in 1788); 181-183 
(Washington as President). Hart's Contemporaries, 31-35 (Boston, 1788); 
35-39 (Philadelphia, 1788); 66-71 (Agriculture, etc., 1795). Mace's 
Working Manual, 229-230 (Proclamation of Neutrality); 231-232 (Ken- 
tucky and Virginia Resolutions). Hart's Source Reader, No. 3, 45-96. 
(For social life and industry, read Nos. 15, 16, 17, 19, 21, 22, 24, 27, 30, 31, 
32, 33. 57. 60.) 

(274-306) I. Prove that the Federalist criticisms of Jefferson were 
not all true. 2. Prove that the purchase of Louisiana was a great event. 
J. How did the purchase show the inconsistency of both Jefferson and 
the Federalists? Which was right, and why? 4. Explain the relation 
between the steamboat and the purchase of Louisiana. 5. Explain why 
American trade and shipping grew so fast from 1800 to 1806. 6. Make a 
list of Jefferson's measures to prevent war. 7. Make a list of the effects of 
the embargo. 8. Write a brief sketch of Madison's career to 1808. 
g. Name the leaders of the "war party." 10. What portion of the 
country wanted war? Why? Which opposed war? Why? 11. What 
acts of Jefferson and Madison had made a successful war difficult? 12. 
What explanations did the English give for our naval victories? What 
explanation do you give? 13. Make a full, clear picture of at least one 
sea fight. 14. How do you account for the fact that the battle of New 
Orleans was fought after peace had been made? Why is such a thing 
impossible now? 15. What action did Federalist leaders propose in the 
Hartford convention? 16. Which way did Madison generally read the 
Constitution in the War of 1 81 2? Had he always read it so? 17. Explain 
how the embargo and the war stimulated home manufactures. Why did 
England hasten goods to America when peace was made, and what was 
the effect? 18. What is a protective tariff? Who favored the tariff of 
1816? 

Histories: Hart's Formation of the Union, 176-180 (Jefferson); 184-185 
(Barbary Wars); 185-187 (Louisiana); 191-195 (Trade Difficulties); 
195-198 (Embargo and Repeal); 200-203 (Trade Difficulties, continued); 
203-206 (War Party); 206-209 (Strength of Great Britian and the United 
States); 209-210, 212-214 (War on. Land); 210-212 (Naval Warfare); 
217-218 (Hartford Convention); 220-222 (Results of War). McMurry's 
Pioneers of the Rocky Mountains, and the West, 1-40 (Lewis and Clarke). 
Humphrey's Boys' Story of Zebulon Pike. Wrights' Stories of American 
Progress, 104-120 (The First Steamboat); 121-129 (Battle of Tippecanoe); 
130-144 (War of 1812). Cooke's Stories of the Old Dominion, 180-192 
(Jefferson). Butterworth's In the Days of Jefferson, 32-168. Beebe's 
Four American Naval Heroes, 73-130 (Perry). Barton's Four American 
Patriots, 133-192 (Jackson). Roosevelt's Naval War of 1812, 88-97 



The Appendix xlv 

(The "Constitution" and the "Guerriere"); ioa-106 (The "Wasp" and 
the "Frolic"); 1 07-1 15 (The "United States" and the "Macedonia"); 
119-138 (The "Constitution" and the "Java"); 179-194 (The "Chesa- 
peake" and the "Shannon"); 254-273 (Perry's Victory); 375-399 (Mac- 
donough's Victory). Seawell's Twelve Great Naval Captains. Mace's 
Primary History, 272-280 (Jefferson) ; 282-300 (Harrison, Perry, and 
Jackson). 

Sources: Hart's Source Book, 226-228 (Boston in 1806); 228-231 
(Jeflferson); 218-220 (Capture of Washington, 1814). Hart's Contem- 
poraries, III, 331-333 (Washington in 1800); 367-372 (Napoleon and 
Louisiana); 389-390 (A Search); 421-422 ("The Star Spangled Banner"). 
Hart's Source Reader, No. 3 (Read Nos. 62, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 89, 90, 92, 93). 
Mace's Manual, 233-234 (Jefferson's First Inaugural) ; 235-237 (How the 
War of 1812 Changed Clay's Views); 237-239 (Hartford Convention 
Views); 240-241 (Monroe Doctrine). 

Fiction and Poetry: Hale's Man Without a Country. Holmes' Old 
Ironsides. Seawall's Little Jarvis. Eggleston's Captain Sam. 
307-334) I. List the original thirteen states as free or slave. Add 
the new states with their dates of admission. Why did Congress admit 
a free and a slave state at nearly the same time? 2. Is Congress com- 
pelled to admit new states into the Union? Quote the Constitution 
(Art. IV, sec. 3, par. i). j. What were the conditions in Florida under 
Spanish rule? 4. Why did the North oppose the admission of Missouri? 
5. Remember the terms of the "Missouri Compromise." Why did 
Henry Clay favor it so strongly? 6. How did the War of 1812 cause the 
demand for "internal improvements"? 7. What effect on eastern mer- 
chants did the steamboat from New Orleans have? 8. Locate the Cumber- 
land, and the National roads, and explain their cause and effects, p. Name 
advantages of the Erie Canal to the state of New York. To people in the 
Northwest. 10. What advantages did railroads have over canals? 
Canals over railroads? //. What two Presidents had already declared 
that America ought not to take part in European affairs? What more 
did Monroe declare? 12. What were the principles of the Monroe Doc- 
trine? What was the effect on Russia? 7j. Is this doctrine alive today? 
Give proofs. 14. Name the great leaders of South American independence. 
15. Why were there so many candidates in 1824? What was the result 
of the electoral vote? What other President had been elected as John 
Quincy Adams was? 16. Compare the National Republicans and the 
old Federalists. Compare Jackson Democrats with Jefferson Republicans. 
If. Why did the people love Jackson more than Adams? 18. Why were 
the new states more democratic than the old ones? 10. Name the new 
methods of campaigning introduced by Jackson's supporters in 1828. 
Describe the scenes at New Orleans. 20. What do you think of the con- 
duct of President Adams during this campaign? 21. What good result 
do you think arose from the new campaign methods used? How did the 
new campaigning show its effect at Jackson's inauguration? 22. What is 
the "spoils system"? 23. What were Jackson's reasons for destroying 
the United States Bank? 24. Why did Jackson defeat Clay so badly? 
How did Jackson harm the people while trying to help them? 25. When 
and by what party was Martin Van Buren elected President? What new 
measure for taking care of the government's money did he favor? 26. 
Why did Harrison defeat Van Buren? 27. Make a list of the causes 
which made the people more democratic after 1800. 

Histories: Brook's Century Book of Famous Americans, 145-155 (Clay); 



xlvi The Appendix 

37-48 (Webster); 140-144 (Calhoun). Frost's Mill Boy of the Slashes- 
Wilson's Division and Reunion, 17-18 (Election of 1824); 19-21 (Jack- 
sonian Democracy); 30-34 (Spoils System); 88-94 (Pet Banks, Specula- 
tion, etc.). Du Bose's Sketches of Alabama History, 13-26 (Mobile); 
27-33 (Alexander McGillwosay) ; 34-41 (Wethersford and Pushmataha); 
42-49 (Dale); 50-56 (Andrew Jackson in Alabama). Riley's School 
History of Mississippi. Harris's Stories of Georgia. Wright's Stories of 
American Progress, 179-194 (The Railroad). Mace's Primary History, 
303-318 (Clay, Webster and Calhoun). 

Sources: Hart's Source Reader, No. 3, 99-102 (Steamboat); 102-104 
(Trip on Erie Canal). Brigham's From Trail to Railway, 40-52 (Erie 
Canal) ; 63-73 (Philadelphia to the West) ; 86-97 (National Road). Hart's 
Source Book, 226-228 (Boston in 1806); 234-237 (Missouri Compromise); 
237-240 (Life in Illinois in 1817); 240-241 (New Orleans in 181 8). Hart's 
Contemporaries, HI, 452-454 (Jefferson's Views on the Missouri Question); 
499~50i (Clay's Explanation of the Monroe Doctrine); 531-535 (Spoils 
System). 

(335-376) I. Give points of resemblance and difference between the 
North and South. 2. Explain the difficulty of governing the whole so as 
to please the sections. 3. Describe the Webster- Hayne debate. 4. Since 
Jackson and Calhoun agreed in regard to the tariff, why should they 
differ in regard to nullification? 5. Prove that Clay, a high protectionist, 
was wise in introducing the "compromise tariff." 6. What was the true 
cause of the trouble over nullification? 7. What was the difference 
between the Quakers and Garrison in their opposition to slavery? 
8. Explain the conduct of both the North and the South toward the 
abolitionists, g. Why did men go to Texas and Oregon? 10. Explain 
why Mexico changed in regard to encouraging settlers. 11. Who were 
the leaders in Texas? 12. Give a word-picture of the storming of the 
Alamo. 13. What was the decisive battle of the Texan Revolution? 
14. What two serious questions were raised in regard to Texas and Ore- 
gon? 75. Who were the candidates in the campaign of 1844? 16. State 
the immediate cause of the war with Mexico, ij. Alake a list of Taylor's 
victories. What was their political effect? 18. Name the leading points 
in treat)' of Guadalupe Hidalgo, ig. What position did the old parties 
take on the slavery question in 1848, and what did this have to do with the 
formation of the Free Soil party? 20. What was Clay's great purpose in 
presenting his compromise to Congress? Make a list of former compro- 
mises. What was Clay's part in each case? 21. Picture the Senate 
during the great debates. 22. State points in Calhoun's speech. What 
title did Webster give his speech? 23. Who was the author of the "higher 
law" doctrine, and what did it mean? 24. What do you infer from the 
fact that "Union meetings" were held. 25. What was the "Under- 
ground Railroad?" 26. How did persons justify the violation of the 
fugitive slave law? How did the slaveholder look upon this violation? 

Histories: Wilson's Division and Reunion, 1 17-132 (Beginnings of the 
Conflict Over Slavery); 141-152 (Tex'as and the Mexican War); 152-154 
(Wilmot Proviso); 169-173 (Compromise of 1850); 178-180 (Campaign 
of 1852). Crockett's Life of Davy Crockett, 368-405. Davis's Under Six 
Flags, (The Story of Texas). Littlejohn's Te.xas History Stories, 81-193 
(Fulmore's County Names of Texas). Baldwin's Conquest of the Old 
Northwest, 213-340. Mace's Primary History, 320-335 (Houston, Lewis 
and Clarke, and Fremont). 

Sources: Hart's Source Book. Mace's Working Manual, 248-249 (Free 
Soil Platform of 1848); 250-251 (Henry Clay on Compromise of 1850). 



The Appendix xlvii 

Fiction and Poetry: Lowell's Biglow Papers. Whittier's Angels of 
Buena Vista. Monroe's Golden Days of '49. Butterworth's Log School- 
house. Smead's Memorials of a Southern Planter. 

(377-398) /. Compare the area, population, and size of cities in 1800 
and i860. 2. What foreign peoples came in largest numbers to the United 
States? 3. Compare European settlers of colonial times with those of 
this period. 4. Tell how the period from 1840 to i860 was one of religious 
and moral improvement. 5. How did the National Government encour- 
age free schools? 6. What was the Academy? 7. How did the South 
excel in education in this period? 8. Who were our first writers to use 
American subjects? p. Name leading literary men North and South 
before the war. 10. What was the value of the Lyceum? //. Point out 
the steps between a hand sickle and a McCormick reaper. Between a 
flail and a ' ' separator. ' ' Explain what the advance from one to the other 
means. 12. Tell the story of the early use of coal and iron. 13. Trace 
the steps in the improvement of manufacturing. 14. Tell how the Missis- 
sippi bound the parts of the nation together. 15. When was New York 
City first connected with Wilmington, North Carolina, and St. Louis by 
rail? 16. How did the merchants of St. Louis reach Pittsburgh before 
1857? 17. What invention made it possible for the United States to 
communicate rapidly with Europe? 

Histories: Spark's Expansion of the American People, Chapter 17 
(Journey to the Ohio Country); Chapter 22 (Cumberland Road and Erie 
Canal). Wright's Industrial Evolution of the United States, 132-135 
(Cotton Industry); 135-138 (Iron Industry) 138-140 (Distribution and 
Value of Manufactures); 144-152 (Industrial Differences Between the 
North and South). Andrews' History of the United States, II, 66-74 
(Material Progress). Ingle's Southern Side-Lights, 10-20 (Population); 
47-66 (Plantations and Farms); 176-195 (Education). Mace's Primary 
History, 337-347 (Fulton, Morse, and Field). Mawry's A merican Inventors, 
270-285 (Morse and Field). 

Sources: Hart's Source Reader, No. 3, 132-134 (The Buffalo) 143-153 
(The Pioneer); No. 4, 1-3 (Life on a Plantation). Hart's Contemporaries, 
III, 161-163 (First American Steam Railroad); 164-571 (Travel); 571- 
573 (First Telegraph). Hart's Source Book, 231-234 (Religious Life in 
the West). Hart's Source Reader, No. 3, 334-370 (At School). 

(399-427) /. Compare the Kansas- Nebraska Bill with the Missouri 
Compromise. 2. What is meant by "popular sovereignty?" 3. What 
effect did the collisions in Kansas produce on the country? 4. What 
caused the Whig party to split? 5. Where did the Republican party- 
come from? 6. What was the meaning of the Presidential vote in 1856? 
7. Explain the effect of the Dred Scott decision. 8. What was the point 
to Lincoln's speech before the Convention? 9. Visit, in imagination, one 
of the "joint debates," and describe what you see and hear. 10. Why 
could not Douglas please the Democrats of Illinois, and of the South at 
the same time? 11. What did Lincoln gain from these debates? 12. 
Show how the debates between Lincoln and Douglas influenced the 
Charleston convention. 13. What was John Brown's mistake about the 
slaves? 14. Why did Southern Democrats feel they could not support 
Douglas? Why could not Northern Democrats support the southern 
view? 15. What was the conduct of Douglas in the campaign of i860? 
What was the immediate effect of Lincoln's election? 16. State the two 
views about secession. 17. Compare Buchanan and Jackson. Read 
Davis's farewell speech in the Senate. 18. Describe the formation of the 



xlviii The Appendix 

Confederate States of America, iq. Which did Lincoln care for most, the 
preservation of the Union or the destruction of slavery? 

Histories: Wilson's Division and Reunion, 182-185 (Repeal of Missouri 
Compromise); 185-187, 199-200 (Kansas Struggle); 187-188 (Republican 
Party); 190-193 (Campaign of 1856); 197-199 (Dred Scott Case); 201-202 
(Lincoln-Douglas Debate); 202-204 (John Brown's Raid); 204-212 
(Campaign of i860 and Secession). Marbe's Heroes Every Child Should 
Know, 309-319 (Lincoln). Baldwin's Four Great Americans, 187-246 
(Lincoln). Williams' Successful Americans, (Lincoln, Greeley, Stephens, 
and Clay). Du Bose's Sketches of Alabama History, 89-98 (Yancey); 
99-103 (Hilliard); 105-111 (Ordinance of Secession). Mace's Primary 
History, 354-370 (Douglas and Lincoln). Mace's Lincoln, 1-134. 

Sources: 'Haxi's Source Book. 

(428-478) /. Imagine yourself in Charleston during the attack on 
Fort Sumter, and tell what you saw and heard. 2. What danger to the 
Union would have followed the secession of Maryland? j. Why was 
Washington from its location more in danger than Richmond? Compare 
the advantages of each section. 4. What good came to the North from 
the battle of Bull Run? What harm to the South? 5. What work of 
great value did McClellan do for the North immediately after Bull Run? 
6. Why did both sections expect aid from England, and how was each 
disappointed? 7. Explain the ways in which the blockade injured the 
South. 8. Make a list of the effects of the " Monitor- Merrimac" battle. 
What would probably have happened if the "Merrimac" had won? 
g. Why were Lincoln and Davis both anxious to ger possession of the 
border slave states? 10. Explain the importance of the capture of Fort 
Donelson. 11. Prove that the capture of New Orleans was a very impor- 
tant event for the North. 12. What was the purpose and what were the 
results of Bragg's invasion? /j. What great battle at the close of 1862? 
14. What great event had taken place in the East while Grant was moving 
from Fort Donelson to Pittsburg Landing, and Buell and Rosecrans were 
driving Bragg? 15. State the steps in the Peninsular campaign. 16. Why 
did McDowell not join McClellan? 77. How did the marching and 
fighting of Lee and Jackson differ from that of McClellan? 18. Prove that 
the negro was being used against the Union, iq. What did the border 
slave states do with Lincoln's plan of freeing their slaves? 20. Explain 
how the battle of Antietam is connected with emancipation. 21. How 
did Lincoln justify the proclamation, since he said in his inaugural address 
that he had no purpose to interfere with slavery in any of the states? 
22. Make a list of the great defeats of the Union forces in the East during 
the war. 23. What great misfortune befell the Confederates at Chan- 
cellorsville? What reasons probably led Lee to make his second invasion? 
24. Why is Gettysburg called a decisive battle? 25. Outline the steps in 
the campaign against Vicksburg. 26. What other events do you rank in 
with the fall of Vicksburg? 27. Why did the Union troops cheer the 
surrendered Confederate soldiers? 28. What if Bragg had succeeded in 
winning the battle of Chattanooga?' 2g. What effect did the beginning 
of the war have on each section? 30. Who in the North were opposed to 
the war? 31. Why did Sherman wish to take Atlanta? What two 
Confederate generals opposed him? Which was the better general? 
32. State purpose of the "march to the sea." 33. What disaster befell 
"the Confederacy at Nashville? 34. How could Sherman march six 
hundred miles through the heart of the Confederacy without fighting a 
battle? (Hart's Cont., IV, 428-436.) 35. Trace Lee from Petersburg to 



The Appendix xlix 

Appomattox. 36. Grant's story of the surrender is in Hart's Cont., IV, 
437-440; Source Book, 329. j/. Picture the grand review in Washington. 
38. What friendly face did the soldiers miss at the grand review? 

(479-486) /. Explain whj' more men in the Civil War died from other 
causes than from being shot. 2. Why did loss of life affect the South 
more than the North? 3. Make a list of all the ways in which the South 
suffered more than the North, and give the reason in each case. 4. " Pic- 
ture" a ruined plantation at the close of the war. 5. Make a list of war 
scenes in the North. 6. Prove that the war was financially beneficial to 
the Northern farmer and manufacturer. 7. Make a list of the different 
ways in which the war cost money. 8. In how many ways did the 
government obtain money? Q. What is the difTernece between getting 
money by a tax and getting it by bonds? 10. How did " bonds " resemble 
"greenbacks?" 11. How differ? 12. What kinds of paper money have 
you seen, and why is paper money worth more now than in 1 865 ? 13 . How 
were bonds used in establishing banks? 

Histories: Wilson's Division and Reunion, 213-221 (Preparation for 
War) ; 222-224 (Trent Affair, Mihtary Events of 1862) ; 227-228 ( Emancipa- 
tion and Radical Measures) ; 229-232 (The Blockade, Military Events of 
1863); 232-238 (National Banks, Mihtary and Pohtical Events of 1864); 
244-252 (Southern Resources, Money, and Government). Mace's Pri- 
mary History, s8o-t,86. Mace's, 135-183. Du Base's Sketches of Albama 
History, 1 18-124 (Admiral Semmes); 125-131 (General Joseph Wheeler). 
Bolton's Lives of Poor Boys Who Have Become Famous, 219-237 (Farragut); 
342-367 (Lincoln). Mace's Primary History, 369-370 (Lincoln); 372-379 
(Grant); 380-386 (Lee). Mabe's Heroes Every Child Should Know, 28g- 
308 (Lee). Magill's Stories of Virginia History, 162-172 (Lee). Addey's 
Stonewall Jackson, 13-240. Dodd's Jefferson Davis, 215-225 (The Making 
of the New Republic.) 

Sources: Hart's Source Book, 299-312 (Fort Sumter, Rousing the 
North, Bull Run, The Southern Soldier, Caring for the Wounded); 
315-327 (Story of Emancipation, Cave Life in Vicksburg, Gettysburg); 
329-339 (Lee's Surrender, Lincoln, Condition of the South). 

(487-492.) I. What were some of the political results of the war? 

2. Under what conditions were the Confederate states readmitted? 

3. Which Vice-Presidents became Presidents? 4. What did Johnson do 
toward reconstruction before Congress met? 5. Trace, step by step, 
the origin of the quarrel between the President and Congress. 6. What 
is the difference between the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments? 
7. Under the plan of Congress what must the people of a state do to get 
back into the Union? 8. Read Constitution, Article I, Section 3, para- 
graphs 6 and 7. 

(493-503.) I. Explain how some of the reconstructed states fell into 
the hands of the negroes. 2. What aroused the ill-feeling of the South 
toward the Carpetbagger? 3. "Picture" a Southern Legislatiu-e as ruled 
by the negroes. 4. Explain by what means the Ku Klux terrified the 
negro. 5. What purpose did the Fifteenth Amendment and the Force 
Bills have in common? 6. What Act tended to bring about a better 
feeling in the South? 7. How could the United States justify her opposi- 
tion to Maximilian? 8. State the purpose, work, and result of the Geneva 
Tribunal. 

Histories: Wilson's Division and Reunion, 254-257 (Problem of 
Reconstruction); 257-259 (Johnson's Plan of Reconstruction); 259-260 
(Thirteenth Amendment); 261-263, 265-270 (Congressional Reconstruc- 



1 The Appendix 

tion); 263-264 (President vs. Congress); 270-271 (Impeachment); 271- 
272 (Presidential Election of 1868); 272 (Affairs in Mexico). Du Bose's 
Sketches of Alabama History; 136-144 (Reconstruction Period). 

(504-511.) /. Name causes of the panic of 1873. 2. Explain how the 
dispute over the election in 1876 arose and how it was settled, j. Prove 
that the removal of troops from the South was wise. 

(512-517.) I. Why are Presidents not nominated for third terms? 
2. What made President Garfield favor " civil-service reform " ? j. What 
was the nature and purpose of the Pendleton Law? Prove that this is a 
wise law. 4. Account for the election of Cleveland. Why did Democrats 
rejoice? 5. What events made Congress see the necessity of a law pro- 
viding for the "Presidential succession"? 6. Who imported foreign 
laborers and why? 

(518-525.) /. Wh}' did Harrison win over Cleveland? 2. Explain the 
rise of the Farmers' Alliance and the People's party, j. How many of the 
points in their platform have been made into law? 4. How do you explain 
the second election of Cleveland? 5. Describe the panic of 1893. 6. 
State the nature and purpose of the Wilson Bill. 

(526.) I. What was the main ciuestion in the campaign of 1896? 
2. How did the parties split on this question? 

Histories: Wilson's Division and Reunion. 

(527-560.) /. Why do the American people have faith in education? 
2. What kind of aid did Congress first give to education? j. What would 
Jefferson think if he could know W^ilson signed the bill for vocational 
education? 4. Explain the hard task of the South in education just after 
reconstruction. 5. What has been done for education in the South? 
6. How have the high schools and colleges changed in late years? 7. 
Make a list of what this country does for the education of older people. 
8. What are uses of expositions? g. Make a list of all kinds of publica- 
tions. 10. Make a list of the kind of writers. //. Why did northern 
farmers and factory owners get on so well during the war? 12. What 
did business firms learn from the war? /j. What changes in farm maehin- 
er}' between 1 860 and 1900? Ask your grandfather to tell you. 14. What 
changes in the size of the farm since 1861? 15. Where does your family' 
get its flour and meal? Ask your grandfather where he got his? 16. 
Tell the changes in meat raising and meat packing. Ask some old gentle- 
men in your neighborhood. //. What changes in coal and iron mines? 
Where did your grandfather get fuel for his house, or store, or factory? 
Ask him. 18. How did people once light their homes? Ask your grand- 
mother or some aged person, the older the better, ig. Why did the 
South not make its own cotton into goods before the war of 1861 ? Where 
did the cotton goods come from? What advantages and disadvantages 
of this plan? 20. Resolved that the new ways of doing things are better 
than the old ways. 21. What conclusions can you draw from the fact 
that the South bids fair to outstrip all other sections in the number of her 
mills? 22. Why were many railroads built after 1865? 23. If you know 
persons born before steam was widely used, ask them to tell you what 
was used instead. 24. Tell the difference between the first railroad train 
and a train of Pullman cars. 25. Make a list of inventions which your 
grandfather knew nothing about when he was a boy. Ask how they got 
on without them. 26. Ask your grandmother to tell you the difference 
between housekeeping now and when she was a girl. 27. When did 
labor win its first national victory? 28. What is a "strike"? In what 
ways can it be settled? 



The Appendix li 

(561-570.) I. Review the relations between America and Spain. 
2. State the causes for Cuban wars against Spanish authority. 3. Which 
was the great cause of the Spanish-American War? 4. Why did news of 
Dewey's victory excite European nations? 5. Discuss its claim as being 
the most important event of the war. 6. Ask some soldier who fought 
in Cuba to tell you of his experiences. 7. Describe the destruction of 
Cervera's fleet. 8. Why were some Americans opposed to the treaty with 
Spain? g. How does the government of colonies add to our national 
expenses? 10. Why did foreigners generally sympathize with Spain? 

(571-594.) /. Wh}^ did we not grant the Fihpinos their demand for 
independence? 2. Describe the Boxer uprising in China, j. What were 
the principal issues in the campaign of 1900? 4. Name our three martyr 
Presidents. 5. What motives led to their assassination? 6. What was 
the significance of the withdrawal of United States authority from Cuba? 
7. What are the relations between the United States and the Philippines 
and Porto Rico? 8. Describe the negotiations for the control of the 
Panama Canal, g. What benefit does the United States derive from such 
a canal? Other nations? 10. What is ineant by the Newer JVIonroe 
Doctrine? 11. Define Pan-Americanism. What is the use of the Pan- 
American Union? 12. What does the United States have to do with the 
Hague Peace Conference? 13. What is arbitration and how many times 
have we used it? 14. State the Roosevelt reforms. 15. Go with the 
fleet around the world and tell some of your experiences. 16. State the 
issues in the Campaign of 1908. 77. Discuss the admittance into the 
Union of Arizona and New Mexico. 

(595-623.) /. What sort of a campaign did we have in 1912? 2. Do 
the new ways of voting encourage a more democratic spirit? 3. What 
measures did President Wilson stand for? 4. Were the laws mentioned 
in §592 also progressive? 5. How have the new amendments worked? 
6. Give a story of our dealings with Mexico. What would you have done 
had you been President? 7. How does the Campaign of 19 16 differ from 
that of 1912? 8. How have our people been changing on the temperance 
and woman suffrage questions? g. What different questions were raised 
by the breaking out of the European War? 10. Why did we join the 
Allies in the war? 11. What are our non-military doings in the war? 

12. What does a peace-loving nation have to do when war is declared? 

13. Give a word-picture of President Wilson addressing Congress. 



Ill The Appendix 



THE "MAYFLOWER" COMPACT 

In ye name of God, Amen. We whose names are writen, the loyall 
subjects of our dread soveraigne Lord, King James, by ye grace of God, 
of Great Britaine, Franc, & Ireland, king, defender of ye faith, &c. , 
haveing undertaken, for ye glorie of God, and advancemente of ye 
Christian faith, and honour of our king & countrie, a voyage to plant 
ye first colonie in ye Northerne parts of Virginia, doe by these presents 
solemnly & mutualy in ye presence of God, and one of another, cove- 
nant & combine our selves togeather into a civill body politick, for our 
better ordering & preservation & furtherance of ye ends aforesaid : and 
by vertue hearof to enacte, constitute, and frame such just & equall 
lawes, ordinances, actes, constitutions, & offices, from time to time, as 
shall be thought most meete & convenient for ye generall good of ye 
Colonie, unto which we promise all due submission and obedience. In 
witnes wherof we have hereunder subscribed our names at Cape-Cod ye 
II. of November, in the year of ye raigne of our soveraigne lord. King 
James, of England, France & Ireland ye i8, and of Scotland ye fiftie- 
fourth. Ano. Dom. 1620. 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE' 

In Congress, July 4, 1776. 

The following declaration of principles was agreed to on July 4, 1776, 
and is thus recorded in the Journal of Congress for that day : 

Agreeably to the order of the day, the Congress resolved itself into 
a committee of the whole to take into their further consideration the 
Declaration ; and, after some time, the president resumed the chair, and 
Mr. Harrison reported that the committee have agreed to a Declaration, 
which they desired him to report. The Declaration being read, was 
agreed to as follows : 
The Unanimous Declaration of the Thirteen United States of 

America 

When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one 
people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with 
another, and to assume among the powers of the earth the separate and 
equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle 
them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they 
should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident : That all men are created 
equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable 
rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness ; 
that, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, 
deriving their just powers from th^ consent of the governed ; that, when- 
ever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is 
right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new gov- 
ernment, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its 
powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their 

iThe use of capitals, the punctuation, the paragraphing, and the numbering of 
paragraphs are all modern. In the original draft the use of capitals and punctua- 
tion marks was quite different and there was no division into paragraphs. 



The Appendix nil 

safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments 
long established should not be changed for light and transient causes ; 
and, accordingly, all experience hath shown that mankind are more 
disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves 
by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long 
train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, 
evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their 
right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new 
guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance 
of these colonies ; and such is now the necessity which constrains them 
to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present 
king of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, 
all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over 
these states. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. 

1. He has refused his assent to laws, the most wholesome and 
necessary for the public good. 

2. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and 
pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent 
should oe obtained ; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected 
to attend to them. 

J. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of 
large districts of people unless those people would relinquish the right 
of representation in the legislature — a right inestimable to them, and 
formidable to tyrants only. 

4. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, 
uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, 
for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. 

J. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly for opposing, 
with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 

6. He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause 
others to be elected ; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of anni- 
hilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise; the state 
remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all the dangers of invasions 
from without and convulsions within. 

7. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states ; 
for that purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners; 
refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising 
the conditions of new appropriations of lands. 

<?. He has obstructed the administration of justice by refusing his 
assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

g. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure 
of their offices and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

/o. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither 
swarms of officers to harass our people and eat out their substance. 

If. He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, 
without the consent of our legislatures. 

12. He has affected to render the military independent of, and 
superior to, the civil power. 

fj. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction 
foreign to our Constitution and unacknowledged by our laws, giving his 
assent to their acts of pretended legislation : 

a. For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us. 

i. For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any 
murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these states. 



liv The Appendix 

£. For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world. 

d. For imposing taxes on us without our consent. 

e. For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury. 
/. For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended 

offenses. 

^. For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring 
province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging 
its boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument 
for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies. 

/i. For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, 
and altering fundamentally the forms of our governments. 

z. For suspending our own legislature and declaring themselves 
invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

14. He has abdicated government here by declaring us out of his 
protection, and waging war against us. 

/J. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, 
and destroyed the lives of our people. 

16. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercena- 
ries to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already 
begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in 
the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized 
nation. 

77. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the 
high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the execution- 
ers of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 

iS. He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has 
endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless 
Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished 
destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in 
the most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered only 
by repeated injury. A prince, whose character is thus marked by every 
act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. 
We have warned them from time to time, of attempts by their legisla- 
ture to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded 
them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We 
have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have 
conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these 
usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and cor- 
respondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and of 
consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which 
denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of man- 
kind — enemies in war; in peace, friends. 

We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, 
in general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the 
world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the 
authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and 
declare that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and 
independent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the 
British crown, and that all political connection between them and the 
state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that as 
free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude 
peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other acts and 



The Appendix 



Iv 




things which independent states may of right do. And for the support 
of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine 
Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, 
and our sacred honor. 

The foregoing declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed and 
signed by the following members : 



New Hampshire 
Josiah Bartlett 
William Whipple 
Matthew Thornton 

Massachusetts Bay 
Samuel Adams 
John Adams 
Robert Treat Paine 
Elbridge Gerry 

Rhode Island 
Stephen Hopkins 
William Ellery 

Connectictit 
Roger Sherman 
Samuel Huntington 
William Williams 
Oliver Olcott 

New York 
William Floyd 
Philip Livingston 
Francis Lewis 
Lewis Morris 



New Jersey 
Richard Stockton 
John Witherspoon 
Francis Hopkinson 
John Hart 
Abraham Clark 

Pennsylvania 
Robert Morris 
Benjamin Rush 
Benjamin Franklin 
John Morton 
George Clymer 
James Smith 
George Taylor 
James Wilson 
George Ross 

Delaware 
Caesar Rodney 
George Read 
Thomas M'Kean 

Maryland 
Samuel Chase 
William Paca 
Thomas Stone 
Charles Carroll of Car- 
roUton 



Virginia 
George Wythe 
Richard Henry Lee 
Thomas Jefferson 
Benjamin Harrison 
Thomas Nelson, Jun. 
Francis Lightfoot Lee 
Carter Braxton 

North Carolina 
William Hooper 
Joseph Hewes 
John Penn 

South Carolina 
Edward Rutledge 
Thomas Heyward.Jun, 
Thomas Lynch, Jun. 
Arthur Middleton 

Georgia 
Button Gwinnett 
Lyman Hall 
George Walton 





Ivi 



The Appendix 



PROVISIONS OF THE CONSTITUTION 



Some steps toward fed- 
eration, resulting in the 
Constitution : 



With regard 
to the President, 
the Constitution 
provides for: 



The New England Confederacy (1643). 

The Albany Plan (1754). 

The Stamp Act Congress (1765). 

The Committees of Correspondence (1773). 

The First Continental Congress (1774). 

The Declaration of Independence (1776). 

Articles of Confederation Adopted (1781). 

Convention at AnnapoHs (1786). 

Constitutional Convention (1787). 



With regard 
to the United 
States Govern- 
ment the Consti- 
tution provides 
for: 



With regard 
to the members 
of the House of 
Representa- 
tives, the Con- 
stitution pro- 
vides for: 



With regard 
to the members 
of the Senate, 
the Constitution 
provides for: 



' Legislative Department. 
Executive Department. 
Judicial Department. 



House of Representatives. 

Senate. 

President. 

President's Cabinet. 

Federal Judges. 

Federal Courts. 



Qualifications. 

Distribution. 
The census. 



Manner of election. By the people of the several states. 
Term of office. Two years. 

(Twenty-five years old. 
Seven years a citizen of the 
United States. 
Live in state where chosen, 
f Among the states according to the 
\ number of inhabitants. 
Every ten years. 
A presiding officer. Members elect the Speaker. 
Power to impeach Federal officers. 

Number. Two from each state. 

Manner of election. By the state legislatures.^ 
Term of office. Six years. 

(Thirty years of age. 
Nine years a citizen of the United 
States. 
Live in state where elected. 
{Vice-President of United States. 
In absence of Vice-President Sen- 
ate elects president pro tern. 
Their acting as court to try impeachments brought by 
the House of Representatives. 

Term of office. Four years. 

Mannerof election. \ By presidential electors chosen by 
1 the people of the several states. 
Natural-born citizen of the United 

States. 
Thirty-five years of age. 
Fourteen years' residence in 

United States. 
To support the Constitution of the 
I. United States. 



Qualifications. 



Qualifications. 



Oath of office. 



1 Amendments, Article XVII. 



The Appendix 



Ivii 



the 



With regard to the C t,- ^. «««^,-„*^^„* f By President with th< 

Federal Judges, the J ^^^^^ appointment, j i^onsent of the Senate 

Constitution provides ] Their number. Fixed by Congress, 

for : L Their term of ofi&ce. During good behavior. 

The Constitution f One Supreme Court, 
provides for Federal < 
courts: L 



Inferior courts to be established by Congress. 



The Constitution 
provides for Congress : 



Congress _, 
has power .- 



The Presi- 
dent's powers: 



The Presi- 
dent's duties : 



Time of meeting. 



r Every year on first 
I Monday of December. 
Quorum. Majority. 

Each house determine its rules of procedure. 
Each house keep a journal. 

Neither house may adjourn for more than three 
days without the consent of the other. 
. The method of passing laws. 

To lay taxes.i 

To borrow money. 

To regulate commerce. 

ny 1 . „ 1 4^„ [Naturalization of foreigners. 

To pass laws to regulate | Bankruptcy. 

To coin money. 

To fix standard of weights and measures. 
To establish post offices. 
To provide for patents and copyrights. 
To declare war. 
To raise and support armies. 
To maintain a navy. 
To provide for a standing army. 
To admit new states. 

To pass laws necessary to carrying out the abovd 
powers. 

r Army. 

J Navy. 

I Militia in service of the 

(^ United States. 

Grants reprieves and pardons. 

' Makes treaties, 

C Ambassadors. 

A «««;«*<. J Ministers. 
Appoints J. Consuls. 

L Federal Judges. 

Send messages to Congress. 

Convene extra sessions of Congress when necessary. 

Receive ambassadors. 

Execute the laws* 



Commander-in-chief of ; 



With the consent of 
the Senate, 



1 Amendments, Article XVI. 



Iviii The Appendix 

THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES ^ 

PREAMBLE 

We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect 
union, estabHsh justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the 
common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings 
of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this 
Constitution for the United States of America. 

ARTICLE I 

THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT 
THE CONGRESS: ITS DIVISIONS AND POWERS 

Section i. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in 
a Congress of the United vStates, which shall consist of a Senate and 
House of Representatives. 

THE HOUSE: ITS COMPOSITION AND POWERS 

Sec. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of mem- 
bers chosen every second year by the people of the several states, and 
the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for elec- 
tors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature. 

No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to 
the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United 
States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state 
in which he shall be chosen. 

(Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the 
several states which may be included within this Union, according to 
their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the 
whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a 
term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other 
persons.) The actual enumeration shall be made within three years 
after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within 
every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall b}' law 
direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every 
thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one representative; 
and until such enumeration shall be made the state of New Hampshire 
shall be entitled to choose three; Massachusetts, eight; Rhode Island 
and Providence Plantations, one; Connecticut, five; New York, six; 
New Jersey, four; Pennsylvania, eight; Delaware, one; Maryland, six; 
Vij-ginia, ten; North Carolina, five; South Carolina, five; and Georgia, 
three. 

When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, the 
executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 

The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other 
officers, and shall have the sole power, of impeachment. 

THE SENATE: ITS COMPOSITION AND POWERS 

Sec. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two 
senators from each state [chosen by the legislature thereof 2], for six j'^ears; 
and each senator shall have one vote. 



1 In the use of punctuation and capitals this draft is modern. 

2 The phrase in brackets has been set aside by the XVIIth Amendment. 



The Appendix lix 

Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first 
election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. 
The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expira- 
tion of the second year ; of the second class, at the expiration -^of the 
fourth year; of the third class, at the expiration of the sixth year, so 
that one-third may be chosen every second year; [and if vacancies hap- 
pen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of 
any state, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments 
until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall fill such vacancies. i] 

No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age 
of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and 
who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he 
shall be chosen. 

The Vice-President of the United States shall be president of the 
Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 

The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro 
tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise 
the office of President of the United States. 

The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments; when 
sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the 
President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside; 
and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two- thirds 
of the members present. 

Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to 
removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of 
honor, trust, or profit under the United States; but the party convicted 
shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, 
and punishment according to law. 

CONGRESSIONAL ELECTIONS AND DATE OF ASSEMBLING 

Sec. 4. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for sena- 
tors and representatives shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature 
thereof; but the Congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such 
regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. 

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such 
meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by 
law appoint a different day. 

RULES OF PROCEDURE OF SENATE AND HOUSE 

Sec. 5. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and 
qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall consti- 
tute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from 
day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent 
members, in such manner and imder such penalties as each house may 
provide. 

Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, ptmish its 
members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two- 
thirds, expel a member. 

Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to 
time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment 
require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either house 
on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered 
on the journal. 

Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the 

IThe phrase in brackets has been set aside by the XVII th Amendment. 



Ix The Appendix 

consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other 
place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. 

COMPENSATION AND PRIVILEGES OF MEMBERS 

Sec. 6. The senators and representatives shall receive a compen- 
sation ' for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the 
treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, 
felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their 
attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and 
returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either house, 
they shall not be questioned in any other place. 

No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he 
was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of 
the United States which shall have been created, or the emoluments 
whereof shall have been increased, during such time ; and no person 
holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either 
house during his continuance in office. 

METHODS OF LEGISLATION 

Sec. 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of 
Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with amend- 
ments as on other bills. 

Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives 
and the Senate shall, before it become a law, be presented to the Presi- 
dent of the United States ; if he approve, he shall sign it, but if not, he 
shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have 
originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and 
proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two-thirds of that 
house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the 
objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, 
and if approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But 
in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas 
and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill 
shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill 
shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays 
excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a 
law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their 
adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 

Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the 
Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a 
question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the 
United States : and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved 
by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of 
the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and 
limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 

POWERS VESTED IN CONGRESS 

Sec. 8. The Congress shall have power ; 

To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the 
debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the 
United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform 
throughout the United States ; 

To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; 

1 Seven thousand five hundred dollars a year, and twenty cents for every mile 
necessarily traveled in coming to and returning fi-om the Capital. 



The Appertdix Ixi 

To regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several 
states, and with the Indian tribes ; 

To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on 
the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States ; 

To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and 
fix the standard of weights and measures ; 

To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and 
current coin of the United States ; 

To establish post offices and post roads ; 

To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, for 
limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right to their 
respective writings and discoveries ; 

To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; 

To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high 
seas, and offenses agamst the law of nations ; 

To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules 
concernmg captures on land and water ; 

To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that 
use shall be for a longer term than two years ; 

To provide and maintain a navy ; 

To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and 
naval forces ; 

To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the 
Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions ; 

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and 
for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of 
the United States, reserving to the states, respectively, the appointment 
of the officers and the authority of training the militia according to the 
discipline prescribed by Congress ; 

To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such 
district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular 
states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the govern- 
ment of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places 
purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the 
same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, 
and other needful buildings ; and — 

To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying 
into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this 
Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any depart- 
ment or officer thereof. 

LIMITS TO POWERS OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 

Sec. 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the 
states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited 
by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, 
but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding 
ten dollars for each person. 

The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, 
unless when in case of rebellion or invasion the public safety may 
require it. 

No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 

No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion 
to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. 

No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state. 



Ixii The Appendix 

No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or 
revenue to the ports of one state over those of another ; nor shall vessels 
bound to, or from, one state, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in 
another. 

No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence 
of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of 
the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from 
time to time. 

No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States. And no 
person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, without the 
consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or 
title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. 

LIMITS TO POWERS OF THE STATES 

Sec. lo. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confedera- 
tion ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of 
credit ; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of 
debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the 
obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 

No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts 
or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary 
for executing its inspection laws ; and the net produce of all duties and 
imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports, shall be for the use of 
the treasury of the United States ; and all such laws shall be subject to 
the revision and control of the Congress. 

No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of ton- 
nage, keep troops, or ships of war, in time of peace, enter into any agree- 
ment or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, or engage 
in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not 
admit of delay. 

ARTICLE II 

THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT 
THE EXECUTIVE OFFICERS ; THE ELECTORAL COLLEGE 

Section i. The executive power shall be vested in a President of 
the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term 
of four years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for the 
same term, be elected, as follows ; 

Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof 
may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators 
and representatives to which the state may be entitled in the Congress ; 
but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or 
profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 

[The electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot 
for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the 
same state with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons 
voted for, and of the number of votes for each ; which list they shall 
sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of 
the United States, directed to the president of the Senate. The presi- 
dent of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of 
Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be 
counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the 
President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors 
appointed ; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and 



The Appendix Ixiii 

have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall 
immediately choose by ballot one of them for President ; and if no 
person have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said 
house shall, in like manner, choose the President. But in choosing 
the President the votes shall be taken by states, the representation 
from each state having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist 
of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority 
of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the 
choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes 
of the electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain 
two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by 
ballot the Vice-President. '] 

The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and 
the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day shall be the 
same throughout the United States. 

No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United 
States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible 
to the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that 
office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and 
been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 

In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, 
resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said 
office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress 
may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or ina- 
bility, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer 
shall then act as President ; and such officer shall act accordingly, until 
the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 

The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a com- 
pensation^ which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the 
period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive 
within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any 
of them. 

Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the 
following oath or affirmation : " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I 
will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and 
will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Consti- 
tution of the United States. " 

POWERS GRANTED TO THE PRESIDENT 

Sec. 2. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and 
navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several states, when 
called into the actual service of the United States ; he may require the 
opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive 
departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective 
offices ; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for 
offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 

He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the 
Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present 
concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent 
of the Senate shall appoint, ambassadors, other public ministers and 
consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United 
States whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and 

1 The paragraph in brackets has been set aside by the Xllth Amendment. 

2 The President receives $7S,ooo a year, and Jas.ooo additional for traveling ex- 
penses; the Vice-President receives J 12,000 a year. 

18 



Ixiv The Appendix 

which shall be established by law ; but the Congress may by law vest 
the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper in the 
President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 

The President shall have power to fill up vacancies that may happen 
during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall 
expire at the end of their next session. 

THE president's DUTIES 

Sec. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress information 
of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such 
measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on extraor- 
dinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in case 
of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, 
he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall 
receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that 
the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of 
the United States. 

impeachment of executive and civil officers 
Sec. 4. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the 
United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and 
conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE III 

THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT 

THE federal courts — SUPREME AND INFERIOR 

Section i. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested 
in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may 
from time to time ordain and establish The judges, both of the Supreme 
and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and 
shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which 
shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. 

POWERS AND jurisdiction OF THE FEDERAL COURTS 

Sec. 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and 
equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, 
and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; to all 
cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls ; to all 
cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies to which 
the United States shall be a party ; to controversies between two or more 
states ; between a state and citizens of another state ; between citizens 
of different states ; between citizens of the same state claiming lands 
under grants of different states, and between a state, or the citizens 
thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. 

In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and con- 
suls, and those in which a state shall be a party, the Supreme Court 
shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, 
the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and 
fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress 
shall make. 

The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by 
jury ; and such trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes shall 
have been committed ; but when not committed within any state, the 
trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have 
directed. 



The Appendix Ixv 

TREASON : ITS NATURE AND PUNISHMENT 

Sec. 3. Treason against the United States shall consist only in 
levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them 
aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the 
testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in 
open court. 

The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, 
but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, 
except during the life of the person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV 
RELATIONS OF THE STATE AND FEDERAL GOVERNMENTS 

RECOGNITION OF STATE AUTHORITY 

Section i. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to 
the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state. 
And the Congress may. by general laws, prescribe the manner in which 
such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 

LAWS REGARDING CITIZENS OF THE STATES 

Sec. 2. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges 
and immunities of citizens in the several states. 

A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime, 
who shall flee from justice, and be found in another state, shall, on 
demand of the executive authority of the state from which he fled, be 
delivered up, to be removed to the state having jurisdiction of the crime. 

No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws thereof, 
escaping into another, shall in consequence of any law or regulation 
therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered 
up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. 

admission of STATES AND REGULATION OF UNITED STATES TERRITORIES 

Sec. 3. New states may be admitted by the Congress into this 
Union ; but no new state shall be formed or erected within the jurisdic- 
tion of any other state ; nor any state be formed by the junction of two 
or more states, or parts of states, without the consent of the legislatures 
of the states concerned as well as of the Congress. 

The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful 
rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging 
to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so con- 
strued as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any partic- 
ular state. 

PROTECTION GUARANTEED BY THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 

Sec. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every state in this 
Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them 
against invasion ; and on application of the legislature, or of the Execu- 
tive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence. 

ARTICLE V 

POWER AND METHOD OF AMENDING THE CONSTITUTION 

The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it 
necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the 
application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several states, shall 

18 A 



Ixvi The Appendix 

call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall 
be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when 
ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states, or by 
conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of 
ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; provided that no amend- 
ment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred 
and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the 
ninth section of the first article ; and that no state, without its consent, 
shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 

ARTICLE VI 

PUBLIC DEBTS: THE SUPREME LAW; OATH OF OFFICE ; 
RELIGIOUS TEST PROHIBITED 

All debts contracted and engagements entered into before the adop- 
tion of this Constitution shall be as valid against the United States 
under this Constitution as under the confederation. 

This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be 
made in pursuance thereof ; and all treaties made, or which shall be 
made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme 
law of the land ; and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, 
anything in the Constitution or laws of any state to the contrary 
notwithstanding. 

The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members 
of the several state legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, 
both of the United States and of the several states, shall be bound by 
oath or affirmation to support this Constitution ; but no religious test 
shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust 
under the United States. 

ARTICLE VII 

RATIFICATION AND ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CONSTITUTION 

The ratification of the conventions of nine states shall be sufficient 

for the establishment of this Constitution between the states so ratifying 

the same. 

Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the states present, the 
seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand 
seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independence of the 
United States of America the twelfth. 

In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names, 




Deputy from Virginia,. 

New Hampshire 

John Langdon Connecticut 

Nicholas Gilman William Samuel Johnson 

- _ , ., Roger Sherman 

Massachusetts ^ 

Nathaniel Gorham ^'^^ ^''"'^ 

Rufus King Alexander Hamilton 



The Appendix Lxvii 



Ne2i/ Jersey Maryland 

William Livingston James McHenry 

David Brearley Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer 

William Paterson Daniel Carroll 
Jonathan Dayton Virginia 

Pennsylvania John Blair 

Benjamin Franklin J^°^^^ Madison. Jun. 
Thomas Mifflin North Carolina 

Robert Morris William Blount 

George Clymer Richard Dobbs Spaight 

Thomas Fitzsimons Hugh Williamson 
James Wilson South Carolina 

Gouverneur Morris John Rutledge 

Delaware Charles Cotesworth Pinckney 
George Read Charles Pinckney 
Gunning Bedford, Jun. Pierce Butler 
John Dickinson Georgia 
Richard Bassett William Few- 
Jacob Broom Abraham Baldwin 

Attest: William Jackson, Secretary. 

AMENDMENTS 

Articles in addition to, and amendment of, the Constitution of the 
United States of America, proposed by Congress, and ratified by the 
legislatures of the several states pursuant of the fifth article of the orig- 
inal Constitution. ARTICLE !• 

FREEDOM OF RELIGION AND SPEECH ; RIGHT OF ASSEMBLY 
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, 
or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of 
speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, 
and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. 

ARTICLE II 
RIGHT TO BEAR ARMS 
A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a ffee 
state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be 
infringed. ARTICLE III 

QUARTERING OF TROOPS 

No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without 
the consent of the owner ; nor in time of war but in a manner to be pre- 
scribed by law. ARTICLE IV 

RIGHT OF SEARCH PROHIBITED 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, 
and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be 

1 The first ten amendments were proposed in 178^, and adopted before the close 
of 1791. They were to "more efficiently guard certain rights already provided for 
in the Constitution, or to prohibit certain exercises of authority supposed to be 
dangerous to the public interests." 



Ixviii The Appendix 

violated, and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, sup- 
ported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to 
be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 

ARTICLE V 
RIGHT TO TRIAL BY JURY 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infa- 
mous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, 
except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, 
when in actual servicein time of war and public danger ; nor shall any 
person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of 
life and limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a wit- 
ness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, with- 
out due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public 
use, without just compensation. 

ARTICLE VI 
RIGHTS OF ACCUSED IN CRIMINAL CASES 
In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a 
speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district 
wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have 
been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature 
and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against 
him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, 
and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. 

ARTICLE VII 

SUITS AT COMMON LAW 

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed 

twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact 

tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the United 

States than according to the rules of common law. 

ARTICLE VIII 

BAIL AND FINES 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor 
cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

ARTICLE IX 
MODIFICATION OF ENUMERATED RIGHTS 
The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be 
construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

ARTICLE X 
POWERS RESERVED TO STATES AND THE PEOPLE 

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, 
nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, 
or to the people. ARTICLE XI ' 

LIMITATION TO PO^VER OF THE FEDERAL COURTS 

The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to 
extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against 
one of the United States by citizens of another state, or by citizens or 
subjects of any foreign state. 

1 Adopted in 1798. 



The Appendix Ixix 

ARTICLE XII » 

NEW ELECTORAL LAW 

The electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot 
for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an 
inhabitant of the same state with themselves ; they shall name in their 
ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the 
person voted for as Vice-President ; and they shall make distinct lists of 
all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice- 
President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall 
sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of 
the United States, directed to the President of the Senate ; the President 
of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Repre- 
sentatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted ; 
the person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be 
the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of 
electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, then from the 
persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of 
those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose 
immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, 
the vote shall be taken by states, the representation from each state 
having one vote. A quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or 
members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states 
shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives 
shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve 
upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the 
Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or 
other constitutional disability of the President. The person having the 
greatest number of votes as Vice-President shall be the Vice-President, 
if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; 
and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers 
on the list the Senate shall choose the Vice-President. A quorum for the 
purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and 
a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But 
no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be 
eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. 

ARTICLE XIIP 

ABOLITION OF SLAVERY 

SLAVERY AND INVOLUNTARY SERVITUDE PROHIBITED 

Section i. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a 
punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, 
shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their 
jurisdiction. 

Sec. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- 
priate legislation. 

ARTICLE XIV 3 

NEW LAWS MADE NECESSARY BY THE CIVIL WAR 

qualifications for citizenship 
Section i. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, 
and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States 
and of the state wherein they reside. No state shall make or enforce 

1 Adopted in 1804. 2 Adopted in 1865. 3 Adopted in 1868. 



Ixx The Appendix 

any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of 
the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, 
or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within 
its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 

APPORTIONMENT OF REPRESENTATIVES 

Sec. 2. Representatives shall be appointed among the several states 
according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of 
persons in each state, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right 
to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice- 
President of the United States, representatives in Congress, the execu- 
tive or judicial officers of a state, or the members of the legislature thereof, 
is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such state, being twenty-one 
years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, 
except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of repre- 
sentation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number 
of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens 
twenty-one years of age in such state. 

DISABILITY FOR BREAKING OATH OF OFFICE 

Sec. 3. No person shall be a senator, or representative in Congress, 
or elector of President or Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or mili- 
tary, tmder the United States, or under any state, who, having previ- 
ously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United 
States, or as a member of any state legislature, or as an executive or 
judicial officer of any state, to support the Constitution of the United 
States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, 
or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, 
by a vote of two-thirds of each hou^^e, remove such disability. 

THE PUBLIC DEBT 

Sec. 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, author- 
ized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties 
for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be ques- 
tioned. But neither the United States nor any state shall assume or 
pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion 
against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation 
of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held 
illegal and void. 

Sec. 5. Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legis- 
lation, the provisions of this article. 

ARTICLE XVI 

RIGHT OF SUFFRAGE 
RIGHT GUARANTEED TO ALL CITIZENS 

Section i. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall 
not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any state, on account 
of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Sec. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- 
priate legislation. 

1 Adopted ia 1870. 



The Appendix Ixxi 

ARTICLE XVI > 

INCOME TAX 

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, 
from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the 
several states and without regard to any census or enumeration. 

ART-ICLE XVII » 
DIRECT ELECTION OF SENATORS 

The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators 
from each state, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each 
senator shall have one vote. The electors in each state shall have the 
qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the 
state legislatures. 

When vacancies happen in the representation of any state in the 
senate, the executive authority of each state shall issue writs of election 
to fill such vacancies; Provided, That the legislature of any state may 
empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until 
the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct. 

This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election 
or term of any senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the 
Constitution. 

ARTICLE XVIir- 
PROHIBITION 

Section i. After one year from the ratification of this article the 
manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors with the 
importation thereof, or exportation thereof from the United States and 
all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof, for beverage purposes is 
hereby prohibited. 

Sec. 2. The Congress and the several states shall have, concurrent 
power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 

Sec. 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been 
ratified as an amendment to the constitution by the legislatures of 
several states, as provided in the constitution, within seven years from the 
date of the submission hereof to the states by the congress. 
Adopted 1 9 19. 

1 Adopted 19 1 3. 2 Adopted 1919. 



Ixxii The Appendix 

A TABLE OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES 



Dates 



787 
787 

787 
78S 
788 
788 
788 
788 
788 
788 
788, 
789 
790 
791 
792 
796 
803 
812 
816 
817 
818 
819 
820 
821 
836 
837 
845 
84s 
846 
848 
850 
858 
859 
861 
863 
864 
S67 
876 
889 
889 
889 
889 
890 
890 
896 
907 
912 
912 
868 
791 
900 



Dec. 

Dec. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

April 

May 

June 

June 

July 

Nov. 

May 

March 

June 

June 

Feb.- 19 

April 30 

Dec. n 

Dec. 10 

Dec. 3 

Dec. 14 

March 15 

Aug. 10 

June IS 

Jan. 26 

March 3 

Dec. 29 

Dec. 

May 

Sept. 

May 

Feb. 

Jan. 

Tune 

"Oct. 

March 

Aug. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

July 

July 

Tan. 

Nov. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

July 

March 

June 



Under Civil 
Government . . 



No. 



Name 



Delaware 

Pennsylvania 

New Jersey 

Georgia 

Connecticut 

Massachusetts 

Maryland 

South Carolina 

New Hampshire 

Virginia 

New York 

North Carolina 

Rhode Island 

Vermont 

Kentucky 

Tennessee 

Ohio 

Louisiana 

Indiana 

Mississippi 

Illinois 

Alabama 

Maine 

Missouri 

Arkansas 

Michigan 

Florida 

Texas ' 

Iowa 

Wisconsin 

California 

Minnesota 

Oregon 

Kansas 

West Virginia 

Nevada 

Nebraska 

Colorado 

North Dakota 

South Dakota 

Montana 

Washington 

Idaho 

Wyoming 

Utah 

Oklahoma 

New Mexico 

Arizona 

Alaska 

District of Columbia . . 

Hawaii 

Porto Rico 

Philippines 

Guam , 

Panama Canal Zone . . 
Tutuila, Samoa Islands . 
Virgin Islands 



Area in 
Square 
Miles ' 

1.965 

44.832 

7.S14 

58.725 

4,820 

8,039 

9,941 

30,495 

9,031 

40,262 

47.654 

48,740 

1,067 

9,124 

40.181 

41,687 

40,740 

45,409 

36,045 

46,362 

56,043 

51,279 

29,895 

68,727 

52.525 

57.480 

54.861 

262,398 

55.586 

55.256 

155.652 

80,858 

95.607 

81.774 

24,022 

109,821 

76,808 

103,658 

70,183 

76,868 

146,201 

66,836 

83.354 

97.594 

82,184 

69,414 

122,503 

113,810 

590,8848 

60 

6,4493 

3.4353 

120.000* 

210* 

436 

102* 
138* 



Popvdation 
in 1910 2 



202,322 
7,665,1 1 1 
2,537.167 
2,609,121 
1,114.756 
3,366,416 
1,295,346 
1.515,400 

430.572 
2,061,612 

9,'1 13,614 

2,206,287 

542,610 

355,956 

2,289,905 

2,184,789 

4,767,121 

1,656,388 

2,700,876 

1,797,114 

5. 638, 591 

2,138,093 

742,371 

3,293,335 

1,574.449 

2,810,173 

752,619 

3.896,542 

2,224,771 

2,333,860 

2,377.549 

2,075,708 

672.765 

1 ,690,949 

1,221,1 19 

81,87s 

1,192,214 

799,024 

577.056 

583.888 

376.053 

1,141,990 

325.594 

145,965 

373,351 

1.657,155 

327,301 

204,354 

64,356 

331,069 

191,909 

1,1 i8,oia 

8.937.597* 

13.689* 

62,8105 

9.100* 

27,086* 



Density of 
Populatloa 

in 1910 
[per «quu« 

mU«)2 



103.0 
171.0 
337.7 

44-4 

231-3 

418.8 

130.3 

49-7 

47-7 

51.2 

191.2 

45-3 

508.S 

39 o 

57. 
52.4 

1 17.0 

36.S 

74-9 

38.8 

100.6 

41-7 

24.8 

47-9 

30.0 

48.9 

13-7 

14.8 

40.0 

42.2 

15-3 

25-7 

70 

20.7 

50.8 

0.7 

15-5 

7-7 

8.2 

7.6 

2.6 

17. 1 
3-9 
I-S 
4-5 

23-9 
2.7 
1.8 

O.I 

5517.8 
39.8 

325. 5 
74-0 
6S.1 

144.0 
89.2 

196.3 



1 Actual land area, excluding water. Thirteenth Census of the United States: 1910, 
Abstract. 

2 Thirteenth Census of the United States. 

3 Aggregate area (land and inclosed water). 

4 The Statesman's Year Book, 1916. 

5 Census of Canal Zoae, 1912. 



The Appendix 



Ixxiii 



GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES* 

Showing- the Steady Increase in the Percentage of Toivn arid City Population 



Census Years 



1790. 

1800. 
1810. 
1820. 
1830. 
1840. 
1850. 
i860. 
1870. 
1880. 
1890 . 
1900. 
1910 . 









Number 


Total 
Population - 


Population 
Living in 
Cities 3 


Peroentage 
of Popula- 
tioD Living 
in Citi.B 


of Cities 
of 8,000 

Inhabit - 








ante 3 


3,929,214 


131,472 


3-4 


6 


5,308,483 


210,873 


4.0 


6 


7,239.881 


356,920 


4-9 


II 


9,638,453 


475.135 


4-9 


13 


12,866,020 


864,509 


6.7 


26 


17,069,453 


1,453,994 


8.5 


44 


23,191,876 


2,897.586 


12. S 


8S 


31,443,321 


5,072,256 


16.1 


141 


38,558,371 


8,071,875 


20.9 


226 


50,155,783 


11,318,547 


22.6 


286 


62,622,250 


18,272,503 


29.2 


447 


75.477,467 


24,992,199 


33-1 


545 


91,972,266* 


38,517.727 


41.8 


1,232 



From Twelfth and Thirteenth Census of the United States. 

Exclusive of Indian Territory, Indian reservations, and insular possessions. 

Places of 8,000 inhabitants or more are here designated as cities except in 19 lO, 

where S,ooo is taken as the limit. 
Exclusive of outlying possessions. 

GROSS AREA OF THE UNITED STATES * 

Including Land and Water 



Census Years 



1790 

1800 

181 o( Louisiana purchase , 1 80 3 ) 
1 82o(Florida cession, 1819) . . . 

1830 

1840 

i85o(Texas accession, i845,and 

Mexican cession, 1848). . . 

i86o(Gadsden purchase, 1853). 

i87o(Alaska purchase, 1867... 

1880 

1890 



Gross Area' 

in Square 

Miles 



827,844 
827,844 
1. 999. 775 
2,059,043 
2,059,043 
2.059,043 

2,980,959 
3,025,600 
3,616,484 
3,616,484 
3,616,484 



Census Years 



1900 Hawaii (annexed, 1 898) 
Porto Rico (ceded by 

Spain, 1899) 
Guam (ceded by Spain, 

1899) 
Philippines (purchased 

from Spain, 1899) 
Samoa (by treaty with 

Great Britain and 

Germany, igoo) 
1 9 1 o Panama Canal Zone ( by 

treaty with Panama, 

1904) 



Gross Area 

in Square 

Miles 



3.742,870 



3.743.3442 



1 Based on the Twelfth Census of the United States. Vol. I., p. XXXII. 

2 From U. S. Department of Interior. Bulletin No. 302. 

FACTS ABOUT OUR DEPENDENCIES 



Name 



Hawaii . . . 
PortoRico. 
Guam 



Philippines 
Samoa. . . . 



Panama 
Canal Zone 

Virgin 
Islands .... 



How Acquired 



Annexed 

Ceded by Spain 

I B y purch ase 
t from Spain.. . I 
Treaty withj 
I Great Britain 
( and Germany | 
i Treaty with Re- i 
public of Pan- 
( ama ' 

) By purchase 1 
1 from Denmark I 



When 
Acquired 



July 6, 1898 
Feb. 6. 1899 
Feb. 16, 1900 
Feb. 23. 1904 
Mar. 3ii IPI? 



Government 



Territory .... 

I Civil Govern 
mentbyCon 

' gress 

I Civil Govern- | 
ment by Con- >■ 

' gress ) 

I Civil Govern- | 
ment by Con- > 

I gress 1 

, Civil Govern- 
ment by Con- 
' gress 



Area in 
Square 
Miles 1 



6,449 

3,435 
210 
I20,0002 



1022 

436 

1382 



Popula- 
tion 



r. 118, 012 

13,6892 

937,5972 

9.ioo2 
62,8io3 
27,0862 



1 From Abstract of Thirteenth Census. 

2 Estimates from Statesman's Year Book, 

3 Census of Canal Zone, 1912. 



1916. 



Ixxiv 



The Appendix 




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The Appendix 



Ixxv 



SOME STATISTICS OF THE UNITED STATES 
AND TERRITORIES 



States 

AND 

Territories 



Alabama 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

District of Columbia. 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New Hampshire 

New Jersey 

New Mexico 

Ngw York 

North Carolina 

North Dakota 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode Island 

South Carolina 

South Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

West Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 



United States 435 



No. Repre- 


Votes in 


sentativss 


Eleotorol 


inCongreBfl, 


College' 


1912 1 


1912 2 


10 


12 


I 


3 


7 


9 


II 


13 


4 


6 


S 


7 


I 


3 


4 


6 


12 


14 


2 


4 


27 


29 


13 


IS 


II 


13 


8 


10 


II 


13 


8 


10 


4 


6 


6 


8 


16 


18 


13 


IS 


ID 


12 


8 


10 


16 


18 


2 


4 


6 


8 


I 


3 


2 


4 


12 


14 


I 


3 


43 


4S 


10 


12 


3 


5 


22 


24 


8 


10 


3 


S 


36 


38 


3 


s 


7 


9 


3 


S 


10 


12 


18 


20 


2 


4 


2 


4 


10 


12 


s 


7 


6 


8 


II 


13 


I 


3 


435 


531 



Number of 

Children in 

Schools, 

1913-19143 



473,iSO 

44.303 

439.624 

480,002 

178,392 

2II.97S 

3S,9SO 

56.S63 

177.154 

615,044 

92,437 

1,043,227 

548.497 

517. 559 

392,662 

532,196 * 

284,136 

144,620 

245.258 

576,510 

572,201 * 

457,041 

492.756 4 
706,364 

85,782 
287,566 

11,710 

63,004 * 
496,899 

67,147 
1,532,151 
599.647 
148,021 
895,167 
496,908 
133,819 
1,401,32s 

86,50s 
378,669 
130,812 
593,437 
830,642 * 

96,678 

65.137 
427.937 * 
238,663 
299.135 
440,103 

29,301 



i9.lS3,7t 



Per cent 
of Total 

Population 
Enrolled 

1913-19143 



20.84 
18. S3 
26.07 
17.40 
19.61 
17 63 
17.13 
16.01 
20.89 
22.15 
23.38 
17.43 
19.73 
23.30 
22.00 
22.64 
16.02 
18.96 
18.29 
15.99 
^9 ■ 23 
20 . 64 
25.91 
20.94 
19.83 
23.08 
11.86 
14.36 
17.6s 
17. SI 
15.48 
25.63 
21. 55 
17.81 
24.52 
17.09 
16.99 
14.63 
23.82 
19.77 
26.32 
19.51 
23.32 
18.03 
19.90 
16.95 
22.44 
17.99 
17.36 



19.39 



Amount 

Expended 

for Schools, 

1913-1914^ 



$ 4,480,614 
2,135.549 
4,360,98s 

26,579.804 
6,602,130 
8,108,003 
610,000 
2,695,035 
2,769.33s 
5.505.295 
3.821,138 

39.007,314 

19.946,938 

16,442,528 

12,210,174 
6,746,302 4 
4,829,234 
3.874.858 
5,522,609 

25,492,292 

18,782,138 * 

18,452,425 
2,806,562 4. 

17,501,867 
4,110,417 

10,095,680 
659,660 
1,853,160 4, 

23,284,096 
1.336,764 

65.936,380 
5,059,351 
6,605,653 

35.172,950 
7,879,906 
5,954,405 

52,544,036 
2,868,854, 
2,914,638 
4,538,026 
5,867.450 

14.497.750* 
4,174.781 
1,964,529 
5.577,874* 

12,515.225 
5.399,382 

13.829,203 
1.153.847 



555.077.146 



1 The number of representatives is fixed by Congress every ten years. August 8, 191 1, 
it was provided that there should be one representative for every 211,877 persons. (See 
Constitution, Art. I.. Sec. 2.) 

2 To find the number of electors, add two to the number of representatives. (See 
Constitution, Art. II., Sec. i.) In 1912 there were 531 electoral votes and 266 (vera 
necessary for election. 

3 Report of the Department of the Interior, 1916, Commissioner of Education, Vol. H, 

4 1912-1913. 



A PRONOUNCING INDEX 



Webster's New International Dictionary has been used as the authority 
for spelHng and pronunciation, except in the case of certain foreign names, 
where the Century Dictionary of Names has been used. 



Acadia (d-ka'd!-d) 
Aguinaldo (a-ge-nal'do) 
Alamance (5.1'd-mans) 
Alamo (a'la-mo) 
Albemarle (arbfe-marl) 
Algonquin (al-gog'ktn) 
Allegheny (al'6-ga'nl) 
Americus Vespucius (d-mer'5(-kMS 

ves-pfl'shus) 
Amerigo Vespucci (a-ma-re'go vgs- 

poot'che) 
Amherst (am 'erst) 
Andre (an'dra or an'dri) 
Annapolis (d-nS.p'6-Us) 
Antielam (an-te'tdm) 
Appomattox (ap'o-mSt'wks) 
Arkansas (ar'kdn-s6') 
Armistead (ar'm!s-ted) 
Asia (a'shd or a'zhd) 
Azores (d-zorz') 
Bahama (bd-ha'md) 
Balboa (bal-bo'a) 
Balfour (barfd6r) 
Barbados (bar-ba'doz) 
Bartholomeu (bar-to'lo-me'tj) 
Bartolozzi (bar-t6-16t'se) 
Beaufort (bu'fert) 
Beauregard (bo're-gard') 
Bon Homme Richard (bo-nom're- 

shar') 
Boscawen (bos'kd-wen) 
Brazil (brd-zil') 
Breton (bret'-«n) 
Buchanan (hti-k&n'an) 
Buell (bQ'el) 

Buena Vista (bQ'nd vls'td) 
Cabot, Sebastian{st-'b2L?>'-ch.dnV.^h' Hi) 



Cabral (ka-bral') 

Calhoun (kSl-hoon') 

Canaries, or Canary Islands (kd-na' 

riz) 
Carranza (kar-ran'tha) 
Cartier (kar'tya') 
Caspian (kas'pl-an) 
Cavite (ka-ve-ta') 
Cerro Gordo (ser'o gdr'do) 
Cervera (thar-va'ra) 
Champlain (shSm-plan') 
Chapultepec (cha-pool'ta-pek') 
Chatham (chat'cm) 
Chautauqua (shd-to'kwd) 
Cherbourg (sher'boor') 
Chesapeake (ches'd-p5k) 
Chickamauga (chik'd-m6'gd) 
Chippewa (cWp'e-wa) 
Choate (chot), Rufus 
Churubusco (choo-roo-bobs'ko ) 
Claiborne (kla'b6rn) 
Constantinople (k6n-stSn'tI-no'p'l) 
Contreras (kon-tra'ras) 
Corinth (kSr'Jnth) 
Coronado (kor-o-na'do) 
Cortes (k6r-tas') 
Culpepper (kul'pep-er) 
Da Gama (da ga'ma) 
Dahlgren (dSl'gren) 
Darien (da'rK-en') 
Deutschland (doich'lant) 
' Dias (de' ash) , Bartholomeu 
Dow (dou), Neal 
Duplessis (dii'ple'sg') 
Duquesne (dii'kan') 
Durand (du-rS.nd'), Asher 
Durham (diir'am) 



Ixxvi 



The Appendix 



Ixxvii 



Eaton, Theophilus (th6-6f 'K-lus e'twri) 

El Caney (el ka-na') 

Ericson, Leif (lef er'ik-sun) 

Eslaing d' (des'taN') 

Euphrates (fi-fra'tez) 

European (u'ro-pe'on^ 

Eutaw (u't6) 

Faneuil (fan"l) 

Farragut (far'd-gut) 

Frederica (fred'er-e'kc) 

Fremont (fre-mont') 

Frobisher (frob'ish-er) 

Frontenac (fr6N't'-nak') 

Gainsborough (ganz'b'r6) 

Gallatin (gal'd-tin) 

Gaspe (gas'pa') 

Genet (zhe-ne') 

Genoa (jen'6-d) 

Gettysburg (get'iz-bflrg) 

Ghirlandaio, Domenico (d6-men'^-ko 

ger-lan-da'yo) 
Gila (he'ld) 
Gorges, Ferdinando (fer'di-nSn'dO 

gdr'jes) 
Granada (gra-na'tha) 
Guadalupe Hidalgo (gwa'tha-loo'pa 

6-t±ial'go) 
Guam (gwam) 
Guerriere (g&r-ry&r) 
Guilford (gil'ferd) 
Guiana, or Guyana (gfe-a'na) 
Gustavus Adolphus (giis-ta'vMs d- 

dbVius) 
Hawaii (ha-wi'e) 
Hennepin (hen'S-pin) 
Hesse (hes) 
Holyoke (hol'yok) 
Honesdale (honz'dal) 
Houston (hus'twn) 
Huerta (wer'ta) 
Huguenot (hu'ge-not) 
Iroquois (ir'o-kwoi') 
Jamaica (jd-ma'kd) 



Jerusalem (j6-roo'sd-lem) 

Joffre (zho'fr') 

Kaskaskia (kas-kas'ki-d) 

Kearney (kar'ni) 

Kearsarge (ker'sarj) 

Kennesaw (ken-fe-sS.') 

Kieft (keft) 

Kuklux (ku'kluks') 

Ladrones (Id-dronz') 

Lafayette (la'fa'yef) 

La Salle (la sal') 

Leiden (li'den) 

Leisler (lis'ler) 

Lisbon (liz'bwn) 

Louisburg (loo'is-bflrg) 

Louisiana (l6o'e-z6-a'nd) 

Luzon (loo-zon') 

Lyceum (li-se'^m) 

Macedonian (mas'e-do'ni-dn) 

Magellan, Fernando (fer-nan'do 

md-jel'cn) 
Manassas (md-nS.s'ds) 
Mann (man), Horace 
Marco Polo (mar'ko po'lo) 
Marquette (mar'ket') 
Massasoit (mas'd-soit') 
Maumee (m6-me') 
Mediterranean (med'I-ter-a'ne-an) 
Memphis (mem'fis) 
Menendez (ma-nen'dath) 
Minuit (min'u-it) 
Mobile (mo-bel') 
Modoc (mo'dok) 
Monterey (mon-te-ra') 
Monticello (mon-te-sel'o) 
Moultrie (mol'tri) 
Murfreesboro (mur'fres-bur-6) 
Narragansett (nar'd-gan'set) 
Narvaez (nar-vS,-ath') 
Newfoundland (nQ'fMnd-land') 
New Orleans (or'le-dnz) 
Niagara (ni-ag'd-rd) 
Nottinghamshire (not'ing-am-sher) 



Ixxviii 



The Appendix 



Nova Scotia (no'vd ske'shyd) 

Nueces (nwa'ces) 

Oglethorpe (o'g'l-thdrp) 

Oklahoma (o'kld-ho'md) 

Orinoco (o'r5t-no'ko) 

Oriskany (6-rfs'kd-nl) 

Osage (o-saj') 

Palo Alto (pa'lo al'to) 

Palos (pa'los) 

Pamlico (pam'H-ko) 

Peabody (pe'bod-O 

Pequot (pe'kwot) 

Pershing (per'sMng) 

Philippine (fll'ip-In) 

Pizarro (p6-thar'rO) 

Plymouth (pHm'Mth) 

Ponce de Leon (pon'tha da la-on') 

Pontiac (pon'ti-ak) 

Porto Rico (por'to re'ko) 

Porto Santo (por'tot) san'td6) 

Portugal (por't^-gal) 

Portuguese (por'^-gez) 

Potomac (p6-to'mdk) 

Powhatan (pou'hd-tan') 

Presbyterian (prez'bi-te'ri-a •) 

Pulaski (pli-las'ki) , Count 

Raleigh (rd'll) 

Resaca de la Palma (ra-sa'ka da la 

pal'ma) 
Rio Grande (re'o gran'da) 
Roberval (ro'bcr'val') 
Rochambeau (ro'shaN'bo') 
Roosevelt (ro'ze-velt) 
Rosecrans (ro'zfe-krSnz) 
Saco (s6'ko) 

St. Augustine (sant 6'gMS-t6n) 
St. Louis (sant lob'is) 
Salamanca (sal-d-mag'kd) 
San Jacinto (sdn ja-stn'to) 
Sati Juan (sdn hwan') 
Santiago (san'tfe-a'go) 
Schley (sll) 



Schofield (sko'feld) 

Schuyler (ski'ler) 

Serapis (sfe-ra'pis) 

Seward (su'erd) 

Seymour (se'mor) 

Shenandoah (shen'an-do'd) 

Shiloh (shi'lo) 

Sioux (soo) 

Slidell (sli-del') 

Steuben (stu'ben), Friedrich Wilhelm 

Stuyvesant (stl've-scnt) 

Syria (sKr'I-d) 

Tecumseh (te-kum'se) 

Thames (tamz) 

Ticonderoga (ti-k6n'der-o'gd) 

Tippecanoe (tip'6-kd-noo') 

Toombs (toomz) 

Toscanelli (tSs-ka-nel'le) 

Tuscarawas (tus'kd-r6'rds) 

Tuskegee (tus-kg'g$) 

Utah (u't6, or u'ta) 

Utrecht (u'trgnt) 

Vandyke (van-dik') 

Van Rensselaer (van ren'se-ler) 

Venezuela (ven'6-zwe'ld) 

Venice (ven'is) 

Vera Cruz (va'ra kroos) 

Verplanck (ver-plagk') 

Verrazano (ver'rat-sa'no) 

Villa (ve'ya) 

Vincennes (vin-senz') 

Vineland (vin'land) 

Viviani (vfe-vya'ne) 

Wampanoag (wom'pd-no'Sg) 

Wesley (wes'lK) 

Weyler (wa'ler) 

Whalley (hwol'i) 

Wilkes (wllks) 

Winckelman (vigk'el-man) 

Zipangu (zi-par)'gu) 

Zuccaro (tzook'ka-rO) 

Zuni (zoo'ny^) 



THE INDEX 

{The references are lo pages in the text of the book.) 
A. America. E. English. F. French. U. Union. C. Confederate. 



ABERCROMBIE, General James (E.), 
129, 130. 

Abolition, societies formed, 269; in the 
District of Columbia, 287; by Mexico, 
303. 

Abraham, Plains of, 109. 

Acadia (Nova Scotia), 15, 107. 

Acts and Bills in Congress, method of pro- 
cedure, 210. See also Congress, and 
special names of acts. 

Acts of Parliament, affecting the colonies, 
32, 35; leading to the Revolution, 113- 
iiS, 116, 120, 125, 128, 149. 

Adams, Charles Francis, candidate for 
Vice-Presidency, 312; minister to Eng- 
land, 373- 

Adams, John, portrait, 211; in the First 
Continental Congress, 126; in the Sec- 
ond Continental Congress, 159; and the 
movement for independence, 163-164; 
and the treaty of peace, 195-196; minis- 
ter to England, 207; elected Vice-Presi- 
dent, 221; elected President, 211; de- 
feated by Jefferson, 233-234. 

Adams, John Quincy, portrait, 253; and 
the Monroe Doctrine, 267-268; elected 
President, 252; and the National Re- 
publican, or Whig, party, 270; defeated 
by Jackson, 272-273; defends the right 
of petition, 301-302; death of, 302. 

Adams, Samuel, portrait, 121; opposes 
Stamp Act, 142; demands removal of 
British Troops, 121; and Committees of 
Correspondence, 122; and the teas hips, 
124; in the First Continental Congress, 
126; escapes British, 123, 155. 

Adamson Law, 452. 

Admiralty Courts, 140. 

Aeroplanes, 468, 478. 

Africa, early voyages around, 427. 

Agricultural Colleges, established, 444; ap- 
propriations, 449-450. 

Agriculture, in the colonies, 29, 41, 45, 75- 
78; in 1790, 215; effect of inventions on, 
300-302; later improvements in, 409- 
410, 411, 446-447; in the New South, 
428, 431. 



Aguinaldo, Philippine leader, 457. 

Alabama, admitted, 239; secedes, 319. 

"Alabama," Confederate cruiser, 364. 

Alabama Claims, 395-396. 

Alamance battle of, 147. 

Alamo, battle of the, 303-304. 

Alaskz, purchase of, 395; woman's suffrage 
in, 454. 

Alaska Boundary Dispute, 438. 

Alaska- Yukon-Pacific Exposition, 467. 

Albany (Fort Orange), founded, 64, 65; 
named, 67; in 1750, 96; colonial confer- 
ence at, 126-127. 

Albany, Plan of Union, 104. 

Albemarle, N. C, founded, 46. 

"Albemarle," Confederate ram, destroyed, 
365. 

Algonquin Indians, 24, 80, 117-118. 

Alien and Sedition Laws, 212, 213. 

Allen, Ethan, takes Ticonderoga, 160. 

Allies, of the European War, 454. 

Amendments, see Constitution. 

America, Central, expeditions against, 283; 
revolution in, 446. 

America, North, bisited by the Northmen, 
i; discovered by Columbus, 8; naming 
of, 10; exploration of, 1-24; colonization 
of, 25-74; struggle between the English 
and French for, 95-112; the Revolution 
in, 113-176; the Monroe Doctrine, 

America, South, visited by Columbus, 13; 
the Spanish in, 14, 267, 446; revolutions 
in, 267; the Monroe Doctrine, 267-268, 
414. 

American Association, 154. 

American Federation of Labor, 422. 

American Flag, see Flags. 

American Party, see " Knownothing " Party 
311-312. 

American Revolution, see Revolution. 

"American System," 253. 

Amherst, General Jeffrey (E.), 109. 

Amnesty, proclamations of, 386, 387; Act 
of, 394- 

Amundsen, Captain Roald, 468. 



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